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A  MANUAL 


STUDY  OF  DOCUMENTS 


TO  ESTABLISH  THE  INDIVIDUAL  CHARACTER  OF  HANDWRITING 


TO  DETECT  FRAUD  AND  FORGERY 


INCLUDING 


SEVERAL  NEW  METHODS  OF  RESEARCH 


BY 


PEESIFOE  lFRAZER 

DOCTEUR  feS-SCIENCES  NATURELI,ES     OFFICIER  DE  L'INSTRUCTION  PUBLIQUE  (FRANCE) 

CORRESPONDENT   DER  KK  REICHSANSTALT  ZU  WIEN 

ETC 


ILLUSTRATED 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 
1894 


Copyright,  1S94, 

BY 

Persifor  Frazer. 


Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphja,  U.S.A. 


,\'y 


TO 


Dr.  BDWAED  pepper 

this  work  is  affectionately  dedicated 

KY 
THE  AUTHOR 


OH!  OO/C-I 


PREFACE, 


The  first  attempt  to  separate  a  branch  of  study  from 
other  cognate  branches;  to  define  it  and  establish  for  it 
an  individual  existence,  is  not  always  successful.  Any 
one  man  is  likely  to  be  too  much  influenced  by  his 
own  point  of  view,  and  thereby  to  include  too  much 
or  too  little. 

But  any  earnest  eftbrt  will  be  attended  with  the  re- 
sult of  directing  other  minds  to  the  subject,  so  that  if 
the  object  be  worthy  its  evolution  will  be  aided,  and  if 
not  it  will  be  dropped.  I  have  this  conviction  to  for- 
tify me  for  producing  another  book,  and  hope  this 
subject  will  be  given  its  final  shape  by  abler  hands  if, 
as  I  believe,  it  has  a  reason  for  existing. 

I  have  suggested  Bibliotics  as  its  name,  because 
Bt^Mo'/  (book,  sheet,  scroll,  libel  at  law,  etc.,  according 
to  the  best  authorities)  is  broad  enough  to  apply  to 
any  object  which  it  may  be  desired  to  investigate,  such 
as  parchment,  wax  tablets,  papyrus,  printing-paper, 
stone,'  or,  in  fine,  any  substance  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  characters.  It  will  include  hieroglj-ph- 
ics,  writing,  printing,  or  designs  of  any  kind  intended 
to  impart  specific  information  by  symbols,  in  contra- 
distinction to  general  impressions  conveyed  by  art 
(lesisrus.     It  will  include  also  all  the  nuiterials  used  to 


VI  PREFACE. 

make  tracings,  such  as  paint,  inks,  and  other  coloring 
matters.  In  a  word,  Bibliotics  would  include  the  study 
of  all  the  materials  used  in  making  designs  for  the 
transmission  of  intelligence,  as  well  as  the  individ- 
ual character  exhibited  in  the  designs  themselves ;  and 
though  it  is  distinct  from  art  conceptions,  from  lit- 
erary or  historical  criticism  of  the  intelligence  con- 
veyed, and  from  accurate  chemical  investigation  into 
the  nature  of  bodies,  yet  it  accepts  and  needs  the  aid 
of  all  three  of  these  studies  in  obtaining  its  results. 

It  will  follow  that  Bibliotics  as  such  is  not  exclusively 
concerned  either  with  the  establishing  of  character,  or 
the  discovery  of  fraud,  but  includes  both  subjects. 

The  first  of  these  I  venture  to  call  Grammapheny, 
from  rpdiiij.a,  a  writing,  and  <paO^(o,  I  demonstrate.  It 
is  the  elucidation  of  the  individual  character  of  hand- 
writing :  that  by  which  it  distinguishes  itself  from  every 
other  handwriting. 

For  the  art  of  detecting  forgery  or  fraud  in  docu- 
ments, seals,  writing-materials,  or  in  the  characters 
themselves,  I  have  suggested  the  word  Plassophevy, 
from  nXdaau),  I  forge,  and  <paivv}.  This  study  is  di- 
rected to  any  part  of  a  written  or  printed  or  sculp- 
tured record,  and  makes  use  of  all  resources  to  test  its 
genuineness.  By  its  very  nature  it  cannot  be  expected 
to  demonstrate  genuineness  except  by  exclusion  in  its 
failure  to  demonstrate  fraud. 

Rather  more  space  than  would  have  been  otherwise 
necessary  has  been  devoted   to  Twisleton's  book  on 


PREFACE.  Vll 

the  letters  of  Junius  because  of  the  unjust  attack 
which  was  made  upon  it,  and  the  somewhat  too  com- 
placent attitude  of  annihilator  which  Mr.  JeafFreson 
assumes  in  his  memoirs.  I  do  not  think  the  method 
employed  by  Messrs.  Cliabot  and  ^etherclift  the  best, 
but  the  book  is  the  best  example  of  what  may  be 
accomplished  by  that  method,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Junian  letters  it  is  convincing. 

My  personal  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  S.  P. 
Sadtler,  Ph.D.,  and  to  Mr.  John  Douglass  Brown,  Jr., 
LL.B.,  for  valuable  advice  relating  to  the  chemical 
and  law  portions  of  the  book  respectively ;  and  to  the 
Hon.  F.  Carroll  Brewster,  Mr.  Samuel  Dickson,  Mr. 
George  B.  Johnson,  Dr.  Horace  Howard  Furness,  Dr. 
D.  G.  Brinton,  and  Professor  E.  D.  Cope,  for  the  loan 
of  documents  and  other  courtesies. 

I  have  freely  used  the  books  mentioned  at  the  end 
of  the  manual  wherever  I  thought  their  contents  as- 
sisted me  in  making  the  subject  clear. 

Persifor  Frazer. 

Junk,  1894. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction 7 

PART   I. 

PHYSICAL   EXAMINATION. 

Chapter  I. — Individual  Cliaracier 19 

Manner  of  Writing,  19  ;  Position,  23  ;  Contraction  of  Habits 
in  Writing,  24  ;  Evolution  of  the  Ideal  Pattern,  26. 

Chapter  II. — The  Writing  Instrument 29 

Past  and  Present,  29. 

Chapter  111.— The  Writing  Fluid 32 

Inks  usually  met  with,  32;  Judgment  as  to  Color  and 
Shade,  33. 

Chapter  IV. — Preliminary  Examination 34 

Care  of  the  Document,  34;  Scanning  by  Transmitted  Light, 
38 ;  General  Style  of  the  Document  as  a  Whole,  39 ;  Se- 
lection of  a  Method  of  Procedure,  39. 

Chapter  V. — Evidences  of  Tampering 41 

Erasure.s,  41  ;  Washing  with  Chemical  Keagents,  43 ;  Res- 
toration of  Original  Marks,  43. 

Chapter  VI. — Tlie  Use  of  Magnifying  Instrumeiits 45 

Choice  of  a  Magnifier,  45  ;  Restricted  Use  of  Higher  Powers, 
4fi ;  Aid  to  determine  Slight  Differences  of  Shade,  46. 

Chaptkk  VII. —  The  Sequence  in  Crossed  Lines 48 

Importance  of  Determination,  48;  Ink  Lines  Transparent, 
48;  Widening  of  Upper  Line,  49;  Method  by  Oblique 
Vision,  61. 

Chapter  VIII. — Hesitation  and  Tremor  of  Feebleness,  Illiter- 
acy, and  Fraud 58 

Labored  Writing,  58;  Feebleness,  59;  Illiteracy,  60;  Fraud, 
61  ;  Retouching,  64. 

1  ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chapter  IX.  —  The  Suhstnnce  Written  Upon 67 

Materials  of  which  it  is  made,  67;  Paper  Making,  67; 
Water-marks,  70 ;  Parchments,  71 ;  Furrows  traced  by 
Pen-nibs,  73  ;  Mackinnon  and  Stylograph  Pens,  74. 

Chapter  X. — Altei'ations  of  the  Character  of  the  Document  .    .      75 
Difficulties,  75/  Writing  over  an    Erasure,  79;  Additions 
and  Interlineations,  80  ;  Obvious  Mistakes,  83. 

Chapter  XI. — Structure  of  Taj^es 84 

Use  of  Tapes,  84;  Uniformity  of  the  Fibres,  85;  Sealing- 
wax,  86  ;  Rounding  of  Edges  by  remelting,  87  ;  Skin- 
marks  on  the  Wax,  87. 

Chapter  XII. — Microscope  Study  of  the  Ink      .        88 

Characteristics  of  Inks,  88  ;  Appearance  under  the  Micro- 
scope, 91  ;  Color,  93;  Dichroism,  94;  Superposition,  94; 
Old  Ink,  95 ;  Changes  which  occur  in  the  Inkstand,  95 ; 
Tests  by  Light  Effects,  96  ;  by  Camera  Lucida,  98  ;  by  Re- 
flected and  Transmitted  Light,  99  ;  Oblique  Illumination, 
99;  Colored  Prisms,  100;   Monochromatic  Light,  104. 

Chapter  XIII. — Quantitative  Method 106 

Insufficiency  of  other  Methods,  106  ;  Expert  Witnesses,  108  ; 
Three  Postulates,  109  ;  Numerical  Average,  109;  Graphic 
Average,  110;  Composite  Photography,  111;  Measure- 
ments, 111;  Selection  of  Points,  114;  Angles,  115;  Use 
of  Averages  obtained,  116;  Example,  118. 

Chapter  XIV. — Composite  Photography 120 

Methods  of  making  Composites,  129;  Washington's  Signa- 
ture, 134 ;  The  Whitaker  Will,  138  ;  Other  Signatures, 
142. 

Chapter  XV. — Guided  Hands 143 

Character  of  such  Writing,  143  ;  Theorj',  143  ;  Explanations, 
144 ;    Analysis  of  Guided  Writing,  145 ;  Example,  145. 

PART   II. 

CHEMICAL   EXAMINATION. 

Chapter  XVI. —  The  Testing  of  Inks 154 

Objects  in  View,  154  ;  Importance  of  photographing  the 
Document,  Plea  for  Proper  Chemical  Testing,  155; 
Reagents  Desirable,  157  ;  Convenient  Form  of  Apparatus, 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

Manner  of  testing,  158  ;  Constitution  of  the  Principal  Inks, 
159;  Preliminar}-  Investigation,  IfiO  ;  Oxalic  Acid,  101 ; 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  Ammonium  Hydrate,  162;  Potassium 
Ferrocyanide,  163  ;  Potassium  Sulphocyanate,  165  ;  Tar- 
taric Acid,  Citric  Acid,  Sulphuric  Acid,  Nitric  Acid,  166  ; 
Acidified  Tin  Bichloride,  Gold  Terchloride,  Ammoniacal 
Sodium  Hyposulphite,  Sodium  Hydrate,  167  ;  Chlorinated 
Lime,  Iodine,  Alcohol,  168 ;  Superposition  in  Crossed 
Lines,  169 ;  Approximate  Age  of  "Writing,  170. 

Chapter  XVII. — Hagei-'s  Method 171 

Reagents  used  by  Forgers,  171;  Reagents  in  Cold,  172; 
Heating  in  Presence  of  Reagents,  173;  Determination  of 
Age,  174;  Sympathetic  Inks,  175;  Procedure,  176. 

Chapter  XVIII. — BaudrimonV s  Method 177 

Reagents  needed,  Mode  of  Operation,  177  ;  Water,  Alcohol, 
178 ;  Test-papers,  179 ;  Silver  Nitrate,  Various  other  Tests, 
180;  Use  of  the  Vapor  of  Iodine,  181  ;  Table  of  Re- 
actions, 184. 

Chapter  XIX. — Concerning  the  Laws  relating  to  the  Testimony 

of  Experts  on  Handwrit'uig 185 

Stephen's  Law  of  Evidence,  185;  Handwriting  Evidence  in 
Pennsylvania,  190;  Opinion  of  Chief-Justice  "Woodward 
in  Travis  vs.  Brown,  191 ;  Conforming  to  the  Law,  199  ; 
Best  Method  of  Presentation,  200. 

Books  Consulted 205 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


PAGE 

Plate  I. — Crossed  Ink  Lines  (various  enlargements) 50 

Plate  II. — Phototype   of  the   Appearance   of  Crossed   Lines 

when  viewed  obliquely 52 

Plate  III. — (Figures  1  and  2)  Face  and  Reverse  of  Cheque. 
(Figures  3,  4,  5,  6)  Unstretched  and  Stretched  Linen  Tape 
and  Silk  Taste.  (Figure  7)  Magnified  Image  of  Black 
Ink  Stroke  on  Glass 80 

Plate  IV. — Washington's  Signatures,  and  two  Composites  of 

them  bj-  DiflFerent  Processes 136 

Plate  V. — A  Portion  of  the  Last  Page  of  the  Whitaker  Will, 
with  a  Composite  of  Robert  Whitaker's  Genuine  Signa- 
tures under  the  Forgery 140 

Plate  VI. — Composites  of  the  Genuine  Signatures  of  Isaac 
Taylor,  George  W.  Hawley,  Enos  V.  Garrett,  and  Thomas 
J.  Morris.     Cuts  of  Portable  Chemical  Case 142 

Plate  VII.— Guided  Signatures  of  Edwin  S.  Barley 148 


INTRODUCTION. 


Owing  to  the  author's  inability  to  find  a  less  preten- 
tious title  for  this  little  work,  he  has  ventured  to  call  it 
a  manual  or  hand-book ;  but  he  means  what  the  word 
implies,  and  not  what  Gmelin  meant  when  he  pub- 
lished a  hand-book  of  chemistry  in  eighteen  volumes 
and  an  index.  It  is  intended  to  be  taken  in  the 
hand,  and  is  so  shaped  that  it  may  be  placed  in  the 
pocket. 

The  following  pages  cannot  pretend  to  meet  all  the 
wants  of  the  student  of  handwriting,  but  they  may  be 
found  useful  for  reference,  and  to  suggest  means  of 
attacking  a  problem  which  might  be  overlooked. 

Although  the  subject  of  which  the  little  book  treats 
has  claimed  the  attention  of  civilized  man  ever  since 
there  have  been  records  traced  in  characters  and  com- 
mitted to  the  custody  of  guardians,  there  has  been  no 
comprehensive  treatise  on  it  discovered  by  the  author 
of  this  book.  Here  and  there  in  the  technical  jour- 
nals articles  have  appeared  on  one  or  more  subdi- 
visions of  this  unnamed  study  (which  for  the  want 
of  a  better  word  may  be  termed  Bibliotics,  or  the  study 
of  the  essential  characters  of  documents),  but  no  at- 

7 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

tempt  has  been  made  to  classify  the  subject  and  to  put 
its  branches  in  their  proper  places. 

Under  the  general  head  Bibliotics  come  in  order 
Grammapheny,  or  the  determination  of  the  specific 
character  of  a  handwriting,  and  Plassopheny,  or  the 
exposure  of  forgery  and  falsification  in  either  writing 
or  documents.  Grammapheny  is  that  investigation 
which  aims  to  extract  from  a  sufficient  number  of 
characters  written  by  the  same  hand  the  type  which 
is  the  result  of  the  physical  structure  and  habits  of  an 
individual,  and  by  which  that  writing  is  distinguished 
from  every  other. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  questions  of  the  greatest  in- 
terest to  attach  themselves  to  such  a  determination 
totally  apart  from  any  question  of  fraud  or  forgery. 

As  instances  may  be  mentioned  the  classic  investi- 
gations of  the  handwriting  of  the  letters  of  Junius, 
which  will  shortly  be  referred  to  again.  A  novel  and 
equally  interesting  problem  in  connection  with  a  case 
of  double  consciousness,  involving  a  difterence  be- 
tween the  acts  performed  in  one  state  from  the  same 
acts  performed  in  the  other,  was  submitted  to  the 
author  by  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  of  Philadelphia.  It 
consisted  in  the  comparison  of  two  difterent  hand- 
writings corresponding  respectively  to  the  two  dif- 
ferent mental  states  of  Mary  Reynolds.^ 

1  Mary  Keynolds :  A  case  of  double  consciousness,  by  S.  Weir 
Mitchell,  M.D.,  Transactions  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila- 
delphia, April  4,  1888. 


INTRODUCTION.  V 

These  studies  are  directed  to  the  establishment  of 
certain  elements  of  script,  which  are  the  external  ex- 
pressions of  inherent  peculiarities  of  structure,  will, 
and  imaginative  power  of  the  person  who  has  written, 
but  they  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  amusing 
but  somewhat  fanciful  methods  of  graphology.  The 
patient  analysis  of  the  elements  of  character  in  hand- 
writing differs  from  graphology  as  craniology  differs 
from  phrenology  so  called,  astronomy  from  astrology, 
or  the  study  of  finger-prints  from  palmistry. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  method  of  pursuing  this  in- 
vestigation has  been  similar  to  that  in  judging  of 
works  of  art.  The  question  has  been  addressed  to  the 
unaided  eye  and  to  the  judgment  unfortified  by  data, 
as  to  whether  certain  marks  or  symbols  or  groups  of 
them  were  like  or  unlike. 

That  splendid  specimen  of  honest  painstaking  work 
by  the  Hon.  Edward  Twisleton,  assisted  by  Messrs. 
Charles  Chabot  and  Frederick  George  Netherclift, 
exhausts  the  subject  of  the  comparison  of  the  writing 
in  the  letters  of  Junius,  the  writing  of  the  anonymous 
note,  and  the'  writing  of  the  anonymous  verses  to  Miss 
Giles,  and  seems  to  connect  Sir  Philip  Francis  in- 
dubitably with  the  first  two,  and  Richard  Tilghman, 
of  Philadelphia,  with  the  last.  But  to  do  this  it  re- 
quires 289  pages  of  large  quarto  form,  thickly  strewn 
with  cuts  and  engravings,  and  whole  pages  of  fac- 
similes, not  counting  266  plates  containing  all  the 
letters  in  controversy,  and  many  others  which   bear 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

upon  it.  One  is  struck  with  astonishment  at  this 
wealth  of  illustration,  this  unstinted  generosity  of 
plates  and  text  figures,  and  with  admiration  at  the 
dignity  of  tone  of  the  whole  text ;  but  one  is  tempted 
to  ask  whether  the  conclusions  finally  reached  might 
not  have  been  attained  in  a  much  less  tedious  and  ex- 
pensive manner.  The  appearance  of  the  book  might 
have  suffered,  but  probably  the  results  would  have 
been  just  as  firmly  established  by  the  system  of 
measurement  and  composite  photography,  of  which 
descriptions  will  be  found  in  later  chapters. 

The  author  (Hon.  Edward  Twisleton)  bas  enhanced 
the  value  of  this  contribution,  important  not  only  to 
the  Junian  discussion  but  also  to  general  literature,  by 
his  admirable  style,  his  impartiality,  and  his  earnest- 
ness. The  example  of  his  thoroughness,  his  disregard 
of  the  difiiculties  of  exhaustive  research,  and  the  con- 
sequent delay  and  cost,  may  be  imitated  with  advan- 
tage by  those  wha  take  up  a  problem  of  this  kind. 

While  modestly  keeping  his  share  of  the  joint  work 
in  the  background,  he  savs,^  "  Still,  although  Mr. 
Chabot  has  written  his  reports  under  professional  re- 
sponsibility, and  they  thus  deserve  to  be  read  with 
more  than  ordinary  attention,  he  is  desirous — and  I 
publish  his  reports  with  the  same  desire — that  his  con- 
clusions should  in  no  respect  be  accepted  on  grounds 
of  mere  authority,  but  that  they  should  be  judged  of 

1  Preface,  p.  xiii,  third  paragraph. 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

entirely  by  the  reasons  which  he  advances  in  their 
behalf.  It  is  important  to  bear  this  in  mind,  for  it  is 
the  practice  of  inferior  advocates  in  courts  of  justice 
where  evidence  on  handwriting  is  given  contrary  to 
the  interest  of  their  clients,  to  indulge  in  rhetorical 
declamations  against  experts ;  and  the  same  practice  is 
sometimes  adopted  by  others  who  have  not  the  same 
excuse  for  desiring  to  avoid  rational  discussions." 

No  one  could  take  a  higher  stand  in  relation  to  a 
subject  on  which  he  had  spent  so  much  time  and 
thought. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  truth  of  the  reference  to 
"inferior  advocates  in  courts  of  justice,"  the  following 
excerpt  is  taken  from  a  daily  newspaper,  which  ap- 
peared some  time  in  April,  1894,  and  had  reference  to 
a  trial  then  attracting  great  public  attention  in  the 
United  States. 

"  The  expert  testimony  was  taken  up  and  torn  into 
tatters.  He  said  it  was  time  that  legislation  put  a  stop 
to  this  travesty  on  justice,  where  experts  got  |25,  |50, 
$100  a  day,  according  to  how  hard  they  were  willing 
to  swear.  The  time  would  come,  he  said,  when  the 
court,  and  not  litigants  in  a  case,  would  select  the  ex- 
perts, and  until  that  was  done  there  would  not  be 
justice  or  decency  in  expert  testimony." 

It  possibly  did  not  occur  to  this  advocate  (an  ex- 
Judge  by  the  way)  that  his  words,  with  little  alteration, 
would  convey  the  very  stricture  on  his  profession  which 
he  sought  to  throw  upon  experts.      There  are  venal 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

and  purchasable  experts,  and  there  are  venal  and  pur- 
chasable attorneys;  but  fortunately  neither  one  nor 
the  other  represent  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 
The  allusion  to  this  same  subject  in  the  body  of  the 
text  was  written  before  the  above  words  were  made 
public.  It  is  there  stated  that  while  such  a  plan  as  the 
speaker  proposed  might  indeed  be  better  than  the  one 
now  in  vogue,  it  is  probably  inferior  to  the  plan  of 
compelling  expert  witnesses  to  give  their  methods  and 
the  results  of  their  work,  and  to  explain  what  con- 
clusion, in  their  judgment,  these  results  support. 
When  this  is  done  it  will  be  competent  for  the  op- 
posing side  to  criticise  their  methods,  results,  or  con- 
clusions, and  to  state  the  grounds  on  which  the  criti- 
cism is  based.  If  these  are  too  technical  to  be  readily 
comprehended  by  the  jury,  the  court's  expert  might 
with  advantage  be  called  on  to  explain  them,  and  thus 
the  question  would  be  narrowed  to  one  of  fact. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  it  allows  full 
liberty  to  every  litigant  to  employ  what  agents  he  may 
please,  but  it  confines  the  expert  testimony  to  such  con- 
clusions as  he  may  justify  by  intelligible  reasons,  of 
the  sufficiency  of  which  the  jury  must  form  its  own 
opinion.  A  great  deal  of  rubbish  would  disappear 
from  expert  testimony  if  this  rule  were  followed.  If 
a  witness  endeavored  to  befog  the  jury,  the  court  ex- 
pert could  be  called  to  explain  the  real  significance 
of  the  results  reached  by  the  former.  Let  expert  tes- 
timony be  defined  by  law  to  be  such  testimony  as  rests 


INTRODUCTION.  1 3 

upon  the  application  of  principles  (which  are  suscep- 
tible of  explanation,  and,  as  explained,  approve  them- 
selves to  persons  of  average  intelligence)  by  means  of 
reasoning;  such  application  being  made  by  one  skilled 
in  the  subject  either  by  observation,  experience,  or 
investigation;  the  testimony  being  important  to  the 
attainment  of  conclusions  material  to  the  case  on  trial. 
Testimony  which  does  not  come  under  this  definition 
should  not  be  admitted  as  expert  testimony. 

"When  there  is  presented  before  a  court  of  law  a 
document,  of  which  it  is  important  to  know  whether  a 
part  or  the  whole  of  the  body,  or  the  signature,  or  all, 
is  actually  in  the  handwriting  of  some  person  whose 
writing  or  signature  in  other  exliibits  is  admitted  to 
be  genuine,  the  counsel  on  each  side  usually  seeks  the 
aid  of  one  or  more  handwriting  experts. 

Commonly  a  teacher  of  writing  or  a  paying-teller 
of  a  bank  is  preferred.  It  must  be  confessed  that 
there  seems  good  reason  for  the  latter  choice,  for  the 
man  upon  whose  immediate  judgment  as  to  genuine- 
ness of  signatures  (reinforced  by  a  large  knowledge  of 
human  nature  and  quick  observation  of  any  suspicious 
circumstance)  depends  the  safety  of  a  bank  is  likely 
to  have  gained  much  experience,  and  not  to  be  easily 
deceived  in  the  kind  of  cases  coming  daily  before  him. 
How  much  the  average  paying-teller  depends  upon  the 
trifling  circumstances  attending  the  presentation  of 
the  cheque,  the  appearance  of  the  person  presenting  it, 
the  probability  of  the   drawer  inserting  such  a  sum. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

etc.,  becomes  apparent  when  one  has  heard  a  num- 
ber of  these  usetnl  officers  testify  in  cases  where  they 
are  deprived  of  all  these  surroundings,  and  required 
to  decide  whether  a  certain  writing  is  by  the  same 
hand  which  produced  another  writing,  both  being 
unfamiliar  to  them. 

In  this  case  they  are  obliged  to  create  a  familiarity 
with  the  signatures  of  a  man  whose  character  and 
peculiarities  they  have  never  known. 

They  miss  the  aid  of  some  feature,  such  as  a  dash, 
a  blot,  or  the  distortion  of  a  letter  which  would  re- 
call to  them  the  character  of  the  writer.  Most  of  the 
best  experts  of  this  class  confess  that  they  cannot  tell 
on  what  their  judgment  is  based.  They  simply  think 
that  the  writing  is  not  by  the  same  hand  as  that  ad- 
mitted to  be  genuine.  "  Xo,"  they  will  tell  you,  "  it  is 
not  merely  superficial  resemblance.  I  don't  know 
what  it  is,  but  I  feel  sure,"  etc.  These  witnesses  are 
more  frequently  right  than  the  more  pretentious  pro- 
fessors of  pot-hooks  and  hangers.  The  former  trust  to 
the  instantaneous  impressions  which  they  receive  when 
papers  are  handed  to  them  :  the  latter  too  often  give 
their  attention  to  the  merely  superficial  features  of 
chirography  without  getting  beyond  the  more  obvious 
resemblances  and  ditferences  which  are  frequently  the 
least  important. 

The  case  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  determination 
of  a  mineral  species.  There  are  many  persons  who, 
in  spite  of  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  crys- 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

tallography,  can  readily  determine  a  mineral  species 
by  looking  at  and  handling  a  fragment  of  it.  There 
are  others  more  versed  in  book  knowledge,  who  can 
write  the  formulas  of  most  mineral  species  on  the 
black-board,  and  repeat  from  memory  the  characters 
which  each  of  these  minerals  should  show,  but  who  are 
very  inferior  to  the  first-class  in  actually  detecting  and 
namina;  a  fras-ment  at  sis^ht.  Bat  if  the  ease  is  an  im- 
portant  one  involving  the  disposition  of  money,  or  the 
establishment  of  a  principle,  recourse  is  had  to  the 
analyst  who  determines,  by  repeated  observations  and 
complex  processes  in  his  laboratory,  the  real  constitu- 
ents of  the  substance.  From  his  results  there  can 
be  no  appeal  except  as  to  the  accuracy  of  his  work  and 
the  soundness  of  the  conclusions  he  has  drawn  from  it. 
Yet  this  analyst  may  be  very  inferior  to  the  first  ob- 
server in  power  of  instantaneous  determination,  and 
to  the  second  in  book  knowledge. 

Nevertheless,  so  deeply  seated  is  the  conviction,  in 
bench  and  bar,  that  the  only  means  of  discovering  a 
forgery  is  by  comparing  an  undefined  ideal  in  the  mind 
with  the  writing  in  question,  that  in  the  review  of  the 
law  in  Pennsylvania  b}-  Chief- Justice  Woodward,  else- 
where quoted,  it  is  expressly  so  stated. 

It  has  occurred  more  than  once  in  the  writer's  ex- 
perience that  papers  have  been  handed  to  him,  while 
on  the  witness  stand,  with  the  demand  that  he  should 
state  whether  or  not  they  were  forgeries,  and  although 
he  has  always  protested  that  this  kind  of  guessing  is 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

unworthy  of  occupying  the  time  of  the  court,  the  pre- 
siding judge  has  on  some  occasions  insisted  that  it 
should  be  done.  It  would  be  as  reasonable  to  hand  to 
a  witness  a  piece  of  a  cast-iron  bar  and  require  him  to 
state,  by  inspecting  it,  how  much  phosphorus  it  con- 
tains, and  whether  it  was  run  from  the  same  furnace 
as  another  specimen. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  an  analytical  investigation 
implies  a  careful  and  laborious  study  of  all  the  facts  by 
the  use  of  instruments,  and  by  the  aid  of  methods 
which  cannot  be  carried  on  in  a  court-room.  Within 
reasonable  limitations  the  more  rapidly  an  opinion  is 
formed  the  less  value  it  has  on  this  as  on  other  sub- 
jects. 

The  procedure  suggested  in  the  following  pages  pre- 
supposes a  place  where  observations  can  be  carried  on 
without  surrounding  distractions;  instruments  suited 
to  the  investigation ;  and  plenty  of  time  to  make  it. 
The  court  which  requires  an  expert  who  bases  his 
conclusions  on  this  class  of  work  to  resort  to  the  prac- 
tice of  guessing  clearly  oversteps  its  duty  and  does  a 
wrong  to  the  witness. 

While  considering  the  subject  of  expert  witnesses 
the  necessity  of  extreme  caution  in  forming  con- 
clusions cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  The  first 
legitimate  conclusion  which  is  likely  to  be  reached  in 
the  course  of  discovering  a  fraud  is  merely  that  the 
document  is  suspicious,  or  cannot  be  proved  to  be  gen- 
uine.    Every  contingency  which  the  experimenter  can 


INTRODUCTIOX.  17 

think  of  should  be  considered  to  explain  away  a  cir- 
cumstance seeming  to  corroborate  the  theory  of  fraud. 
Where  a  number  of  unlikely  hypotheses  must  be  in- 
voked in  order  to  explain  the  appearance,  they  will 
ultimately  force  the  conviction  of  falsiiication,  and 
this  conviction  is  less  liable  to  be  changed  if  it  has 
grown  steadily  in  spite  of  all  attempts  to  avoid  it  by 
explanations. 

The  following  flourish  line  is  an  illustration  of  the 
necessity  of  caution  in  forming  conclusions. 

Fig.  1. 


Upper  sheet. 
Fig.  2. 


Lower  sheet. 

It  occurred  under  a  signature  in  the  ordinary  way. 
The  writing  was  done  on  two  sheets  of  paper  separated 
by  a  sheet  of  carbon  paper  for  the  purpose  of  making 
a  duplicate.  The  stroke  was  made  rapidly  and  with 
some  force,  as  was  the  custom  of  the  writer.  When 
the  sheets  were  separated  and  examined,  his  surprise 
was  great  to  find  the  lower  flourish  (which  is  the  lower 
in   the    accompanying    illustration)    entirely    diflerent 

2 


1 8  INTRODUCTION. 

from  the  upper  one  as  to  the  direction  of  the  line. 
Whereas  the  first  stroke  from  right  to  left  on  the 
upper  flourish  turned  downward  abruptly,  in  the  car- 
bon copy  it  continued  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the 
paper.  The  only  explanation  is  that  in  making  it  the 
pen-hand  must  have  turned  the  upper  sheet  on  the 
back  of  the  carbon  paper  nearly  at  right  angles  to  its 
former  position,  and  the  upper  sheet  must  have  come 
back  to  its  place  before  the  second  stroke  and  the 
final  vertical  dashes  were  made.  The  final  horizontal 
loop  of  the  second  stroke  in  the  upper  sheet  was  not 
repeated  by  the  carbon  paper  on  the  lower  sheet. 

If  an  important  issue  had  depended  upon  proving 
that  the  carbon  copy  was  an  identical  reproduction  of 
the  upper  writing,  this  non-agreement  of  the  two 
flourish  lines  would  very  likely  have  been  fatal  to 
the  establishment  of  what  was  actuallv  the  fact. 


PART  I. 
PHYSICAL    EXAMINATION. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INDIVIDUAL    CHARACTER. 

The  Manner  of  "Writing. — For  the  purpose  of  this 
little  work  it  is  sufficient  to  consider  the  art  of  writing 
as  practised  by  most  civilized  western  nations.  The 
writer  has  never  yet  had  experience  with  documents  in 
Japanese,  Chinese,  Arabic,  or  Persian,  and  only  once 
in  Hebrew  characters.  In  all  these  cases  the  character 
of  the  writing  instrument  and  the  direction  followed  by 
that  instrument  (whether  from  left  to  right,  right  to 
left,  or  vertically  upward  or  downward)  would  lead  to 
new  applications  of  the  general  principles  herein 
noted,  but  would  not  change  those  principles  in  any 
respect. 

In  ordinary  writing  the  page  is  laid  on  a  support, 
usually  near  the  edge  of  a  table,  and  the  hand 
holding  the  pen  is  laid  either  on  or  immediately  be- 
low the  paper.      The  elbow,  some  part  of  the  fore- 

19 


20  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

arm/  or  the  side  of  the  hand,  is  generally  used 
as  a  pivot,  and  the  hand  somewhat  bent,  while  the 
pen,  supported  by  the  fingers,  moves  across  the 
paper  from  left  to  right,  the  fingers  in  the  main 
producing  the  movement  of  the  pen  up  and  down, 
and  the  wrist,  forearm,  or  shoulder  giving  the  lat- 
eral motion  necessary  to  execute  any  desired  mark 
requiring  a  longer  excursion  than  the  fingers  can 
perform. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  ordinary  position  of  the  arm 
in  the  act  of  writing ;  a  skeleton  arm  being  selected  in 
order  to  show  the  positions  which  the  bones  assume, 
and  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  an  essential 
part  of  the  character  of  handwriting  depends  upon  the 
habit  of  placing  a  particular  part  of  this  rigid  struc- 
ture on  the  table  as  a  pivot  around  which,  as  a  centre, 
the  writing  is  traced.  Habit  enables  the  writer  to 
prevent  the  appearance  of  a  curve  in  the  line  of 
writing  by  compensating  movements  of  the  fingers. 
Every  time  the  pivot  is  changed  the  pen  is  naturally 
raised  from  the  paper,  and  therefore  the  number  of 

1  "  The  forearms  and  not  the  elbows  should  rest  upon  the  desk.  The 
pen  should  be  passed  across  the  paper  by  a  movement  of  the  wrist  and 
not  of  the  arm." — A  Manual  of  Handwriting,  etc.,  by  F.  Betteridge, 
London,  1887. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  author  of  these  pages  has  no 
intention  of  entering  the  field  of  instruction  as  to  the  proper  manner 
of  writing,  but  merely  wishes  to  represent  the  principal  methods 
which  are  actually  employed,  whether  they  be  faulty  or  not. 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY. 


21 


times  the  pen  is  removed  from  the  paper  will  in  great 
iiieasure   depend   upon   the  length  of  the  radius  be- 


FiQ.  3, 


tween  the  point  of  support  and  the  point  of  the  pen. 
In  Fig.  3  the  arm  could  write  entirely  across  the 
note-paper  page  represented  w^ithout  curving  the 
writing,  by  shifting  its  position  once  or  twice,  but  it 
would   not  be   easy   to   write   fluently   without  such 


changes. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  4  represents  the  arm  pivoted  on  the  elbow,  thus 
increasing  by  half  the  length  of  the  forearm  the 
radius  of  lateral  motion,  and  rendering  fewer  changes 


22  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

of  position  of  the  pivot  necessary.  Handwriting  of 
experts  in  calligraphy  is  often  made  in  this  way.  It 
permits  a  greater  range  of  motion  and  allows  more 
paper  to  be  covered  without  removing  the  pen. 

In  Fig.  5  the  ell)Ow,  forearm,  and  wrist  are  all  in 
contact  with  the  table,  and  the  range  of  free  motion 
without  change  of  position  is  as  small  as  it  can  be  for 
any  given  arm.     In  this  attitude  it  would  be  necessary 

Fig.  5. 


to  shift  the  arm  continually  at  the  conclusion  of  every 
one  or  two  words  traced  on  the  paper.  It  is  the  posi- 
tion naturally  assumed  by  those  writing  with  a  board 
on  the  lap,  in  bed,  or  on  a  very  high  table. 

Of  course  these  are  but  three  of  innumerable  posi- 
tions which  may  be  assumed  by  a  writer,  but  they  are 
the  most  common. 

Some  writers  who  are  obliged  to  sign  their  names 
very  often,  or  who  act  as  paying  clerks  in  large  mer- 
cantile establishments,  write  the  few  words  continually 
demanded  without  touching  any  support  at  all  with 
the  hand  or  arm.  Some  pivot  the  wrist  on  the  top  of 
the  table,  others  hold  the  pen  in  an  unusual  position 


AND   DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  23 

and  bring  difterent  parts  of  the  band  in  contact  witb 
tbe  paper.  But  however  a  man  may  write,  if  his 
style  become  a  habit,  it  may  be  reduced  to  the  ele- 
ments of  a  fairly  constant  pivot  and  radius,  and  certain 
methods  of  using  the  lingers,  which  together  give  a 
character  to  the  writing  which  may  be  detected 
wherever  it  is  seen. 

Position. — The  hand  soon  moves  so  far  along  the 
paper  that  a  new  position  must  be  taken  by  that  part 
of  the  forearm  or  hand  used  as  a  pivot.  This  fact,  to- 
gether with  the  individual  peculiarities  of  every  bony 
structure,  and  the  very  dift'erent  methods  which  differ- 
ent persons  employ  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  is  of 
prime  importance  in  studying  the  results  of  these 
eftbrts  in  a  page  of  writing  or  a  signature.  These  will 
be  more  fully  referred  to  hereafter,  but  it  may  be 
generally  mentioned  that  some  writers  move  the  fore- 
arm at  the  end  of  every  two  or  three  letters,  while 
others  attain  the  power  of  compensating,  by  larger  ex- 
cursions of  the  fingers,  for  the  naturally  descending 
curve  of  writing  traced  by  the  pen. 

The  same  peculiarities  are  noticeable  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  pen  is  lifted  from  the  paper,  some 
writers,  and  usually  those  who  have  a  great  deal  of 
writing  to  do,  lifting  the  pen  only  when  the  pivot 
must  be  changed,  and  others  fashioning  each  letter 
separately  and  often  leaving  space  between  the  indi- 
vidual letters  of  a  word  as  large  as  between  separate 
words.     This  latter  habit  is  commonest  aniono;  tliose 


24  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

who  have  little  writing  to  do,  and  among  the  aged  or 
infirm. 

Contraction  of  Habits  in  Writing. — These  peculi- 
arities, as  well  as  the  shading  of  the  letters,  and  the 
hesitating  or  the  determined  manner  of  making  dashes, 
dots,  and  flourishes,  are  all  connected  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  writer,  and  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
study  with  a  view  of  reading  the  character  of  the 
writer  by  his  handwriting.^ 

Of  all  the  above,  the  manner  of  changing  the  pivot 
in  writing  is  the  most  important  object  of  preliminary 
study,  because,  when  the  points  of  change  have  been 
ascertained,  the  general  slant  or  slope  of  the  letters 
and  the  angles  of  the  different  parts  of  a  single  letter 
with  the  general  direction  of  the  line  of  writing  are 
easily  understood,  and  form  an  important  guide  for 
establishing  the  genuineness  or  non-genuineness  of 
the  writing. 

The  parts  of  a  writing  which  demand  the  closest  at- 
tention are  those  which  have  been  made  unconsciously 
and  which  are  not  easily  noted  by  a  superficial  view. 
The  height,  the  spread  of  the  letters,  the  peculiarities 
of  the  endings,  the  flourishes,  and  the  general  shape 
are  things  which  the  forger  observes  and  imitates,  often 
with  success ;  but  the  curvature  of  a  letter  in  its  differ- 
ent parts  is  not  easily  appreciated  by  the  naked  eye, 

1  See  The  Philosophy  of  Handwriting,  by  Don  Felix  de  Sala- 
manca. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  25 

and  cannot  even  be  easily  traced  without  showing 
under  a  magnifying  glass  distinct  signs  of  hesitation 
and  labored  effort  very  unlike  the  unconscious  ease  of 
the  genuine  writing. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  angle  with  the  horizontal, 
and  of  the  unconscious  rise  and  fall  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremities of  the  letter  with  reference  to  a  real  or  im- 
aginary line  drawn  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
the  signature,  and  sometimes  called  a  "  base  line,"  and 
habits  of  shading  or  amplifying  parts  of  letters  too 
small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  are  tests  of  value 
which  can  l)e  applied  by  the  aid  of  a  simple  horn  pro- 
tractor and  magnifying  glass,  but  which  generally 
elude  the  scrutiny  or  evade  the  successful  imitation  of 
expert  forgers.  But  there  are  variations  in  the  sepa- 
rate parts  of  all  long  lines  which  come  to  view  in  ex- 
amining a  carefully-made  composite  under  the  micro- 
scope, which  must  ever  def\"  imitation  on  account  of 
their  extreme  minuteness,  though  they  are  fairly  con- 
stant. Many  of  these  have  frequently  been  noted  on  a 
single  long  stroke  of  a  capital  letter,  an  "  f,"  or  the 
like.  They  will  be  more  particularly  mentioned  under 
the  head  of  the  method  by  composite  photography.  It 
is  to  these  peculiarities,  inappreciable  to  the  naked 
eye,  and  yet  very  constant  in  the  habit  of  any  writer, 
that  the  expert  should  give  his  most  careful  attention. 

It  is  often  asserted  in  trials  that  tracings  of  a  genu- 
ine signature  invariably  show  hesitation  and  painting. 
This  is   not  always  the  fact.     Tracings,  ])roven,  and 


26  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

subsequently  admitted  to  have  been  such,  have  shown 
an  apparent  absence  of  all  constraint,  and  a  careful 
examination  of  the  result  revealed  no  pause  of  the  pen. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  these  freely  written  tracings 
have  invariably  shown  either  a  deviation  from  some 
habitual  practice  of  the  writer,  or,  if  the  model  was 
followed  with  skill,  two  or  three  such  tracings,  when 
photographed  on  a  transparent  iilm  and  superposed, 
have  shown  such  exact  resemblances  as  to  proclaim 
their  character  at  once. 

Evolution  of  an  Ideal  Pattern. — The  natural  ten- 
dency of  man  is  to  introduce  some  elements  of  sym- 
bolism in  what  he  is  obliged  to  copy,  and  to  seek  some 
sort  of  geometrical  symmetry  in  what  he  designs. 
Wherever  he  is  not  restricted  by  certain  forms  which 
he  must  introduce,  and  which  may  render  a  balance  of 
parts  about  a  median  line  unattainable,  he  tends  to 
evolve  symmetrical  designs,  as  in  the  highest  and  sim- 
plest forms  of  ancient  architecture.  When  the  parts 
of  the  design  are  prescribed,  as  in  the  representation 
of  objects  in  nature,  he  soon  tires  of  mere  mechan- 
ical repetition  of  the  same  things  in  a  given  sequence, 
and  strives  to  convey  some  ulterior  idea  by  the  man- 
ner of  joining  these  parts.  This  gives  life  and  lan- 
guage to  sculpture  and  painting,  and  gives  character 
to  handwriting. 

In  the  process  of  evolving  a  signature,  which  must 
be  again  and  again  repeated  from  an  early  age  till 
death,  new  ideas  occur  from  time  to  time,  are  tried, 


AND   DETECTION'   OF    FORGERY.  27 

modified,  improved,  and  finally  embodied  in  the  de- 
sign. The  idea  finally  worked  out  may  be  merely  a 
short  method  of  writing  the  necessary  sequence  of 
characters,  or  it  may  present  some  novelty  to  the  eye. 
Signatures  consisting  almost  exclusively  of  straight  up- 
and-down  strokes,  looking  at  a  short  distance  like 
a  row  of  needles  with  very  light  hair-lines  to  indi- 
cate the  separate  letters :  signatures  begun  at  the 
beginning  or  the  end  and  written  without  removing 
the  pen  from  the  paper  :  signatures  which  are  en- 
tirely illegible  and  whose  component  i)arts  convey 
only  the  mutilated  rudiments  of  letters,  are  not  un- 
common. All  such  signatures  strike  the  eye  and 
arrest  the  attention,  and  thus  accomplish  the  object 
of  their  authors.  The  French  signature  frequently 
runs  upward  from  left  to  right,  ending  with  a  strong 
down  fiourish  in  the  opposite  direction.  All  these, 
even  the  most  illegible  examples,  give  evidence  of  ex- 
perience in  handling  or  mishandling  the  pen.  The 
writing  most  ditficult  to  read  is  frequently  the  pro- 
duction of  the  hand  which  writes  most  frequently,  and 
it  is  very  much  harder  to  decipher  than  the  worst 
specimens  of  an  untrained  hand.  The  characteristics 
of  the  latter  are  usually  an  evident  painstaking  desire 
to  imitate  faulty  ideals  of  the  letters  one  after  the 
other,  without  any  attempt  to  attain  a  particular  effect 
by  the  signature  as  a  whole.  In  very  extreme  cases 
the  separate  letters  of  the  words  constituting  the  sig- 
nature are  not  even  joined  together. 


28  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

A  simulation  of  such  a  signature  by  an  expert  pen- 
man will  usually  leave  enough  traces  of  his  ability 
in  handling  the  pen  to  pierce  his  disguise.  Even  a 
short  straight  stroke  into  which  he  is  likely  to  relapse 
against  his  will  gives  evidence  against  the  pretended 
difficulties  of  the  act  which  he  intends  to  convey.  It 
is  nearly  as  difficult  for  a  master  of  the  pen  to  imitate 
an  untrained  hand  as  for  the  untrained  hand  to  write 
like  an  expert  penman.  The  difference  between  an 
untrained  signature  and  the  trembling  tracing  of  his 
signature  by  an  experienced  writer  who  is  ill  or  feeble, 
is  that  in  the  former  may  be  seen  abundant  instances  of 
ill-directed  strength,  and  in  the  latter  equally  abundant 
instances  of  well-conceived  design  with  a  failure  of  the 
power  to  execute  it. 

Observations  such  as  the  preceding  are  frequently 
of  great  value  in  aiding  the  expert  to  understand  the 
phenomena  which  he  meets,  and  the}'  belong  to  a 
class  which  does  not  require  the  application  of  stand- 
ards of  measure,  but  only  experience  and  memory  of 
other  similar  instances  of  which  the  history  was  known, 
and  a  sound  judgment  to  discern  the  significance  of 
what  is  seen. 

ISTo  general  rules  other  than  those  referred  to  above 
can  be  given  to  guide  the  student  of  handwriting  in 
such  cases,  but  the  diffisrences  will  become  sufficiently 
apparent  with  sufficient  practice. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  29 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE    WRITING    INSTRUMENT. 

Pens,  Past  and  Present. — The  age  has  been  for  two 
generations  a  steel-pen  age.  The  greater  number  of 
forgeries  have  been  accomplished  by  means  of  this 
instrument  in  deference  to  its  all  but  universal  adop- 
tion as  the  instrument  of  writing.  It  would  be  more 
exact  to  sa}^  that  metal  pens  have  superseded  the  old 
goose-quill,  which  latter  is  only  found  among  the  con- 
servators of  by-gone  customs,  along  with  shirt-frills 
and  snuff-boxes. 

Except  that  the  old-fashioned  article  makes  a 
"  softer"  pen, — i.e.,  one  with  which  less  pressure  is 
needed  to  induce  a  flow  of  ink, — the  principle  in- 
volved is  the  same.  A  semi-C3linder  to  retain  the 
supply  of  ink  by  its  capillary  attraction,  fashioned  to 
a  point  split  in  two,  so  that  by  pressure  a  measurably 
broad  column  of  ink  may  be  made  to  rest  upon  the 
paper,  and  by  moving  the  pen  the  liquid  is  left  behind 
as  a  line  which  marks  its  course.  More  pressure  is 
required  to  separate  the  nibs  of  metal  pens,  but  the 
force  required  is  seldom  great,  and  the  choice  of  a 
stiff  or  a  yielding  pen  is  the  result  of  the  habit  of  the 
writer  to  employ  little  or  much  pressure.  One  difler- 
ence,  however,  is  to  be  noted, — namely,  that  whereas 


30  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

furrows  made  by  quill-pen  nibs  are  rare,  they  are,  as  a 
rule,  easily  observable  under  the  microscope  in  writing 
which  has  been  done  by  metal  pens. 

These  furrows  are  often  of  importance  in  forming 
an  idea  of  how  the  characters  were  traced,  whether 
rapidly  or  slowly,  with  or  without  unusual  tremor, 
etc.,  and  in  this  respect  metal  pens  (steel,  gold,  iridium 
pointed,  etc.)  add  a  characteristic  worthy  of  notice  to 
those  left  by  quill-pens.  Again,  in  old  times,  when  the 
trimming  of  a  pen  was  constantly  undertaken  in  the 
course  of  any  long  writing,  the  same  document  was 
liable  to  show  dift'erences  of  thickness  and  smoothness 
of  lines,  free  or  ink-filled  loops  in  difterent  parts,  even 
when  written  by  the  same  hand  and  at  the  same  sit- 
ting. 

With  a  metal  pen  such  changes  are  less  likely  to 
occur,  and  consequently  one  element  of  confusion  is 
avoided. 

It  is  sometimes  of  interest  to  note  the  fact  that 
different  parts  of  a  writing  have  been  made  with 
difierent  kinds  of  pens,  fine-  and  coarse-pointed,  broad- 
nibbed,  stiff"  or  pliant ;  and  such  observations  have 
more  significance  in  a  steel-pen  than  in  a  quill-pen 
age.  But  latterly  there  has  arisen  a  Mackinnon  and 
stylographic  pen  rage  which  threatens  to  pervade  all 
classes  of  writing,  and  to  modify  the  methods  of 
studying  the  tracings  of  the  writing  instrument  in 
some  degree.  The  principle  of  these  pens,  known  by 
various  names,  is  that  of  a  hollow  holder  to  contain 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  31 

the  ink,  taperini:;  to  an  acute  hollow  cone,  the  perfo- 
ration being  closed  by  a  wire  of  platinum,  tipped  with 
iridosmine,  or  some  other  extremely  hard  substance, 
to  resist  the  abrasion  of  the  paper,  and  held  down  so 
as  to  prevent  the  continuous  flow  of  ink,  either  by  a 
small  leaden  weight  (the  Mackinnon)  or  by  a  tine 
spiral  spring  (the  stylograph). 

The  pressure  of  the  point  upon  the  paper  pushes 
back  the  tapering  wire  and  allows  the  ink  to  escape 
around  it  to  the  paper.  The  writing  appears  under 
the  microscope  as  a  central  shallow  furrow  on  the  soft 
paper,  usually  narrower  than  the  ink  line  which  stains 
the  edges  of  the  furrow  for  a  greater  or  less  distance 
from  the  margin,  depending  upon  the  breadth  of  the 
truncation  of  the  hollow  cone.  The  absence  of  the 
widening  or  narrowing  of  the  ink-line  by  variations 
of  pressure  removes  one  mark  by  which  forgery, 
tremor,  or  illiteracy  may  be  indicated,  while  the  nature 
of  the  instrument  and  its  method  of  feeding  the  ink 
upon  the  paper  destroys  the  possibility  of  shading,  so 
dear  to  the  heart  of  the  calligrapher,  but  it  has  com- 
pensating advantages  in  the  facility  it  furnishes  to 
write  uniformly,  rapidly,  with  a  constant  supply  of  the 
same  ink,  without  blots,  and  without  the  necessity  of 
pausing  to  replenish  the  supply  of  writing  fluid.  Still 
the  main  characteristics  which  can  be  made  the  sub- 
jects of  exact  measurement  remain,  and  the  stylograph 
has  not  rendered  the  practice  of  forgery  notably  easier. 


32  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE    AVRITING    FLUID. 

Inks  Usually  met  -with. — The  inks  in  common  use 
over  the  United  States  at  the  present  time,  and  for 
some  years  past,  are  not  as  numerous  as  one  might  be 
led  to  conclude.  They  are  probably  fifteen  or  at  most 
twenty  in  all,  including  the  most  popular  blue,  red, 
mao;enta,  and  o-reen  inks.  But  among  these  there  is 
a  notable  ditference  in  character.  Some  are  thick, 
heavy,  and  glossy  in  character,  and  flow  sluggishly 
from  the  pen.  Few  of  these  become  much  darker 
by  standing.  In  this  class  will  be  found  the  copying 
inks  and  those  in  which  a  large  quantity  of  gums  or 
similar  thickening  agents  are  used. 

Other  inks  are  pale,  limpid,  and  flow  easily  from  the 
pen,  and  this  class  usually  shoAvs  a  notable  darkening 
by  exposure  to  sunlight  and  air. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  here  to  refer  more  particu- 
larly to  the  intermediate  varieties  or  to  discuss  their 
various  composition.  The  exhaustive  treatise  of 
Schluttig  and  Neumann  on  this  subject  may  be  re- 
ferred to  for  further  information  than  is  contained  in 
this  little  book.^ 

1  Die  Eisengallustinten.  Grundlagen  zu  ihrer  Beurtbeilung.  Im 
Auftrage    der    Firma   August    Leonhardi    zu    Dresden,   chemische 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  33 

It  should  be  remembered  here  that  in  the  hast 
twenty  years,  or  since  the  introduction  into  general 
commerce  of  aniline  colors,  which  Hofmann  dis- 
covered in  1856,  these  latter  have  been  employed 
more  and  more  in  writing  fluids;  not  only  in  mix- 
tures of  which  they  are  the  principal  ingredients, 
but  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  all  inks.  Their  pres- 
ence, even  in  small  quantity,  in  the  gallo-tannate  of 
iron  and  logwood  inks  can  be  generally  detected  by 
an  iridescent  and  semi-metallic  lustre. 

The  presence  of  numerous  blots  and  unduly  thick- 
ened lines  in  writing  will  indicate  a  more  than  de- 
sirable flow  of  ink  which  may  result  from  its  fluidity, 
or  the  clumsiness  or  unnecessarily  strong  pressure 
of  tlie  writer,  or  both.  In  certain  cases  this  may 
furnish  a  clue  to  assist  in  determining  whether  two 
writings  or  parts  of  the  same  document  have  been 
written  by  the  same  hand  or  with  the  same  ink. 

Judgment  of  Color  and  Shade. — The  color  or  the 
blackness  of  one  ink  as  compared  with  another  are  very 
difiicult  to  judge  by  the  naked  eye,  or  when  a  broad  is 
com})ared  with  a  fine  line.  In  very  numerous  cases  an 
examination  of  the  two  lines  under  the  microscope 
will  lead  to  the  reversal  of  a  judgment  formed  by  the 
assistance  of  the  naked  eye  alone. 


Fabriken  fiir  Tinten,  bearbeitet  von  deren  Chemikern  Oswald 
Schlnttig  und  Dr.  G.  L.  Neumann.  Mit  2  Holzschnitten,  einer 
schwarzen  und  2  farbigen  Tafeln.   Dresden  :  Zahn  und  Jaensch,  1890. 

3 


34  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

This  kind  of  pre]iminai\y  examination,  which  at  first 
thought  seems  easy,  had  better  be  postponed  and  re- 
course had  later  to  the  microscope,  which  presents  a 
smaller  area  with  greater  distinctness. 

Other  observations  indicated  above  having  been 
made,  the  free  or  cramped  character  of  a  signature  or 
a  word  is  often  of  importance  in  the  preliminary  ex- 
amination about  to  be  described.  It  happens  not  in- 
frequently that  the  desire  to  get  a  given  number  of 
words  into  a  definite  space  leads  to  an  entirely  unusual 
and  foreign  style  of  writing,  in  which  the  accustomed 
characteristics  are  so  obscured  or  changed  that  only 
the  systematic  analysis  to  be  detailed  farther  on  can 
detect  them.  If  there  be  no  apparent  reason  for  this 
appearance  in  lack  of  space,  the  cause  may  be  the 
physical  state  of  the  writer  or  an  attempt  at  simula- 
tion. If  a  suflicient  number  of  genuine  signatures  are 
available,  it  can  generally  be  determined  which  of 
these  two  explanations  is  the  right  one. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

PRELIMINARY     EXAMINATION. 

Care  of  the  Document. — At  the  very  outset  of  an 
examination  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to 
guard  the  document  which  is  to  be  its  subject  from 
handling  and  soiling,  and  especially  to  protect  it  from 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  35 

finger  and  other  marks  on  the  written  characters.  A 
suspected  document  is  generall}'  not  in  first-class  con- 
dition when  it  comes  to  the  expert,  because  expectant 
litigants  who  have  scanned  it,  and,  it  must  be  said, 
some  highly  eminent  attorneys,  who  ought  to  know 
better,  are  singularly  careless  about  their  treatment  of 
an  object  upon  which  the  fate  of  the  litigation  may 
turn.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  foreign  pen-marks  (!) 
on  the  pages  of  contested  papers  which  could  be  traced 
to  the  careless  handling  of  pens  moistened  with  ink  by 
attorneys  or  their  clerks. 

Usually  it  is  the  litigant  who  suspects  that  there  is 
something  fraudulent  in  the  document,  and  by  way 
of  satisfying  himself  on  the  subject  thumbs  it  or  pricks 
it  with  pins,  with  as  little  regard  for  the  consequences 
as  if  the  delicate  points  to  be  investigated  could  not 
l)e  obscured.  If  it  be  the  counsel  who  first  decides  to 
subject  the  document  to  expert  examination,  it  may 
fare  little  better.  It  would  seem  that  a  specific  amount 
of  rough  handling  and  of  extraneous  matter  deposited 
must  pave  the  way  to  the  conviction  that  the  paper 
should  be  an  object  of  scrutiny.  As  if  the  thumbing 
and  pulling  were  not  enough,  it  is  usual  for  the  keeper 
of  the  document  to  fold  and  refold  the  paper  each 
time  it  is  taken  from  its  repository. 

It  is  very  strange  that  gentlemen  who,  more  than  all 
others,  should  know  the  value  of  keeping  documents 
in  their  original  state,  and  whose  daily  experience 
teaches  them  that  continually  refolding  a  paper  must 


36  STUDY   OF   HANDWEITING 

wear,  tear,  and  destroy  it,  should  persist  in  doubling 
up  a  valuable  paper  every  time  it  is  used.  A  docu- 
ment which  bears  upon  it  the  evidence  which  may 
convict  a  malefactor  of  forgery,  or  which  may  decide 
the  ownership  of  a  fortune,  should  be  carefully  and 
tenderly  handled.  It  should  be  laid  between  sheets  of 
clean  white  paper  without  folding,  unless  its  size  be  so 
great  as  to  render  this  very  difficult,  in  which  case  it 
should  be  folded  but  once,  and,  if  possible,  in  other 
than  the  original  lines,  and  invariably  so  that  the  folds 
do  not  cross  any  important  part  of  the  paper.  It  is 
usually  practicable  to  fold  the  document  without  cross- 
ing any  lines ;  but  when  this  is  not  the  case,  those 
parts  of  the  instrument  should  be  chosen  which  are 
immaterial  to  the  investigation,  no  matter  what  sort 
of  a  form  this  leaves  it  in.  In  most  cases  the  doc- 
ument can  easily  be  laid  out  flat,  covered  with  two 
pieces  of  clean  writing-  or  wrapping-paper,  and  carried 
in  a  large  envelope  or  portfolio.  It  is  much  better 
even  to  roll  it  lightly  in  its  covering  papers  than  to 
fold  it  after  it  has  once  been  taken  up  for  study. 

Least  of  all  should  any  object  capable  of  imparting 
a  color  to  the  paper  be  brought  near  the  part  or  parts 
of  the  document  about  which  suspicion  exists.  In  the 
interest  of  justice  this  should  be  as  sacredly  guarded 
as  a  ballot-box,  for  upon  the  testimony  which  it  gives 
important  questions  may  depend. 

When  the  microscope  is  to  be  used  to  examine  parts 
of  the   writing,   it  is   usually    necessary  to  fold   the 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  37 

document  to  bring  the  part  to  be  scrutinized  under 
the  lens  without  interference  from  the  stand  of  the 
microscope,  which  will  only  afford  a  space  of  but 
seven  or  eight  centimeters  between  the  brass  upright 
and  the  axis  of  the  lens. 

In  this  case  it  is  better  to  make  new  folds,  and  to 
steady  the  document  on  a  plate  of  clean  glass  or  metal 
of  about  five  centimeters  on  a  side,  for  it  is  usually 
convenient  to  remove  the  ordinary  table  for  micro- 
scope-slides. 

A  photograph,  if  possible  of  natural  scale,  should 
always  be  taken  before  the  investigation  begins,  either 
of  the  whole  or  of  the  important  part  of  the  docu- 
ment, and  none  but  chemists,  experienced  in  testing 
important  papers,  should  apply  reagents  to  them. 

First  Scrutiny. — It  is  a  very  useful  preliminary  to  any 
pln'sical  investigation  to  look  at  the  document  carefully, 
reading  its  lines,  and  thus  familiarizing  one's  self 
with  the  style  of  expression,  as  well  as  the  character 
of  the  writing  as  expressed  in  the  letters,  the  groups  of 
letters,  the  spaces  between  words,  and  the  placing  of 
sentences.  By  doing  this,  and  without  any  conscious 
etibrt,  a  certain  general  effect  due  to  the  writer's  habit 
in  dealing  with  these  elements  of  individuality  will 
dawn  upon  the  observer.  It  is  in  this  way  that  con- 
noisseurs judge  of  the  authorship  of  paintings  or 
statues,  and  are  enabled  to  distinguish  copies  and  even 
replicas  from  originals. 

In  every  case  the  investigator  should  endeavor  to 


38  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

think  himself  into  the  position  of  the  writer  whose 
work  he  is  studying ;  to  imagine  himself  opposed  by 
the  resistance  of  the  little  grain  in  the  paper  which 
has  caused  the  pen  to  deviate  or  to  sputter ;  to  repro- 
duce the  sensation  of  not  having  space  enough  to 
finish  a  word  which  has  caused  the  original  writer  to 
crowd  his  letters  together  unnaturally,  and,  finally,  to 
be  confronted  with  the  problem  (whatever  it  be)  which 
the  face  of  the  document  pretends  the  writer  has 
solved-  by  the  means  which  have  aroused  suspicion, 
such  as  the  alteration  of  a  figure,  the  interpolation 
of  a  word,  or  a  complete  interlineation,  etc. 

When  sufiicient  time  has  been  taken  to  get  all  the 
lio-ht  to  be  derived  after  attaining  this  frame  of  mind, 
the  next  step  can  be  taken. 

Scanning-  by  Transmitted  Light. — It  is  never  amiss 
to  look  at  the  document  placed  between  the  observer 
and  a  strong  daylight, — not  often  direct  sunlight.  A 
northern  exposure  is  a  very  favorable  light  in  this 
hemisphere  for  these  studies  as  well  as  those  of  art. 
Transmitted  light  often  tells  tales  on  a  forger,  some- 
times revealing  erasures  by  the  area  over  which  a 
stronger  light  reaches  the  eye ;  sometimes  by  a  water- 
mark which  is  inconsistent  with  the  supposed  date  of 
the  paper. 

Mr.  Sittl,  of  Munich,  the  eminent  expert  on  hand- 
writing, relates  an  instance  of  a  document  bearing 
the  date  of  1868,  which  was  written  on  paper  with  a 
water-mark  representing   the   eagle    of  the    German 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  39 

empire,  which,  as  all  the  world  knows,  was  not  em- 
ployed until  after  the  French  war,  in  1870. 

Remains  of  Tracings. — It  sometimes  occurs  that  the 
forger,  fearful  that  his  attempt  to  imitate  another's 
Avriting  would  be  too  easily  detected  if  made  with  a 
free  hand,  sketches  in  pencil  the  characters  he  intends 
to  make  in  ink  on  the  document,  or  traces  them  l)y 
means  of  blackened  paper  at  the  appropriate  place. 
The  evidences  of  this  are  very  likely  to  appear  when 
the  document  is  examined  in  transmitted  light. 

General  Style  of  the  Document  as  a  "Whole. — When 
an  entire  document  or  page  is  forged,  the  ornamen- 
tation, flourishes,  or  capitals  at  its  head  will  often  be 
seen  to  be  out  of  keeping,  either  with  its  nature  or 
with  the  supposed  author's  habits  in  similar  cases.  As 
observed  by  Mr.  Sittl,  in  a  writing  all  must  agree, 
place,  day,  year,  handwriting,  superscription  or  head- 
ing, signature,  and  material  carrying  the  writing, 
especially  paper,  both  as  to  constitution  and  color,  and 
ink.i 

Selection  of  a  Method  of  Procedure. — A  basis  can 
usually  be  laid  for  the  choice  of  a  line  of  investigation 
by  a  careful  study  of  the  writing  or  writings  by  the 
unaided  eye.  It  is  to  the  unaided  eye  that  these 
writings  have  been  addressed,  and  to  the  unaided  eye 


1  Illustrirtes  Lexikon  der  Verfalschungen,etc.  .  .  .  Herausgegeben 
von  Dr.  Otto  Danimer,  Leipzig.  J.  J.  Weber,  1887.  Article  "  Hand- 
schriften." 


40  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

they  tell  their  story,  either  simple  and  straightfor- 
ward, or  hesitating  and  suspicious,  or  labored  and 
doubtful.  The  latter  class  of  cases  presents  the  great- 
est difficulties,  for  it  is  not  always  proof  of  spurious- 
ness  that  the  writing  has  been  painfully  and  slowly 
produced.  There  are  minds  so  easily  impressed  with 
a  sense  of  responsibility,  that  the  writing  or  signing  of 
any  paper  important  in  its  bearing  on  the  writer  or  his 
property  will  cause  him  to  disguise  his  hand  to  some 
extent  involuntarily,  as  many  persons  disguise  their 
features  involuntarily  when  being  photographed.  It 
is  not  at  all  easy  to  distinguish  by  the  naked  eye  alone 
between  this  form  of  disguise  and  a  forgery,  but  it 
will  generally  be  found  possible  to  do  so  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  methods  described  farther  on. 

Nevertheless,  the  contemplation  of  the  writing  or 
writings  under  investigation  will  generally  result  in 
putting  one  in  possession  of  the  general  character  of 
the  hand,  and  will  aid  the  after-study  when  it  tran- 
spires through  more  minute  analysis  what  causes  the 
characteristic  features. 

An  hour  may  usually  be  profitably  spent  in  merely 
scanning  each  letter  of  a  document,  and  the  writing 
by  lines,  paragraphs,  and  pages  before  a  closer  scrutiny. 
Gradually,  if  the  writing  be  genuine,  its  character  will 
begin  to  reveal  itself,  and  unconsciously  an  hypothesis 
as  to  the  physical  causes  of  the  irregularities  or  charac- 
teristics will  be  formed.  When  this  preliminary  glance 
is  concluded,  some  course  will  suggest  itself  for  the 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  41 

next  step.  If  it  be  a  question  of  the  genuineness  of  a 
single  signature,  and  thirty  or  forty  undisputed  signa- 
tures (the  more  the  better)  are  at  hand,  the  most  uni- 
versally applicable  method  to  employ  is  that  of  a  care- 
ful measurement  of  the  sizes,  distances  apart,  etc., 
of  the  letters  and  of  their  angles  with  some  selected 
standard  line. 


CHAPTER    Y. 

EVIDENCES    OF    TAMPERING. 

Kinds  of  Forgery. — A  forgery  consists  either  in 
erasing  from  a  document  certain  marks  which  existed 
upon  it,  or  in  adding  others  not  there  originally,  or  in 
both  operations,  of  which  the  first  mentioned  is  neces- 
sarily antecedent  to  the  last ;  as  where  one  character 
or  series  of  characters  is  substituted  for  another. 

The  removal  of  characters  from  a  paper  is  effected 
either  by  erasure  (seldom  by  pasting  some  opaque 
object  over  the  characters,  painting  over  them,  or 
affixing  a  seal,  wafer,  etc.,  to  the  spot  where  they  ex- 
isted) or  by  the  use  of  chemical  agents  with  the  object 
of  dissolving  the  writing  fluid  and  affecting  the  under- 
lying paper  or  parchment  as  little  as  possible. 

Erasures. — If  the  erasure  be  affected  by  scratching 
or  rubbing,  this  removes  also  the  surface  of  the  paper, 
which  consists  of  some  sort  of  "  size"  or  paste  with 
resin  soap,  which  is  pressed  into  the  upper  pores  to 


42  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

give  the  paper  a  smooth  appearance,  and  to  prevent 
the  writing  fluid  from  "  running,"  or  entering  the 
pores  and  bhirring  the  edges  of  the  lines. 

If  the  paper  were  left  as  it  exists  when  the  scratch- 
ing or  rubbing  is  completed,  it  would  be  very  easy  to 
see  that  it  had  been  tampered  with,  for  not  only  would 
the  parts  thus  abraded  show  the  running  of  any  fluid 
which  was  subsequently  laid  upon  them,  but  the  sur- 
face would  appear  rough  to  the  eye  in  comparison 
with  adjacent  parts  of  the  paper,  and  the  place  would 
appear  thinner  by  transmitted  light.  Even  to  the 
touch  the  surface  would  reveal  differences  from  the 
ordinary  condition  of  other  parts  of  the  paper. 

But  the  forger  usually  endeavors  to  overcome  these 
difiiculties  by  applying  to  the  scratched  area  sanda- 
rach,  resin,  alum,  paste,  or  two  or  three  of  these 
together,  the  effect  being  to  prevent  an  unusually 
large  flow  of  ink  from  the  pen  and  its  abnormal  ab- 
sorption by  the  paper. 

The  paper  should  be  placed  between  the  observer 
and  a  strong  light,  by  which  means,  either  with  or 
without  a  magnifying-glass,  a  distinct  increase  in  the 
brightness  of  the  suspected  area  may  be  noticed,  in- 
dicating a  thinning,  and  even  traces  of  letters,  or 
marks  which  have  escaped  the  erasing-tool,  may  be 
seen. 

A  close  scrutiny  may  show  places  where  the  surface 
has  been  partially  torn,  and  the  tibres  of  the  paper 
united   together  into   little    knobs,  and   almost  inva- 


AND    DETECTION   OP   FORGERY.  43 

riably  a  magnifyiiig-glass  will  clearly  show  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  superficial  fibres,  as  compared  with 
other  and  normal  parts  of  the  paper.  If  the  latter  be 
tinted,  the  change  of  appearance  may  extend  to  color. 
The  color  of  the  paper  should  always  be  attentively 
observed. 

■Washing  with  Chemical  Reagents. — A  change  of 
color  over  the  part  which  is  the  subject  of  investiga- 
tion may  indicate  the  mechanical  removal  of  the  paper 
itself,  or  a  washing  either  with  water  or  with  acids, 
alkalis,  or  saline  solutions.  A  certain  spotted  char- 
acter which  follows  this  latter  treatment  differs  from 
the  changes  of  color  due  to  age  or  soiling. 

When  the  heavier  strokes — usually  the  down 
strokes — of  a  writing  are  thicker  and  more  blurred 
than  usual  a  removal  of  sizing  is  indicated,  or  an 
original  imperfect  sizing  of  the  paper. 

On  the  contrar}-,  where  the  strokes  are  thinner  and 
closer  together  than  usual,  the  cause  is  generally  the 
application  of  resin,  which  has  been  added,  in  all 
probability,  to  conceal  a  previous  scratching  of  the 
surface. 

The  spots  produced  by  washing  are  more  like  pe- 
numbra, or  blurred  marks  bordering  the  tracings  of 
the  character,  and  are  generally  colored. 

Restoration  of  Original  Marks. — In  order  to  bring 
out  any  traces  of  ink-marks  which  have  been  so  far 
removed  as  not  to  be  observable  by  the  naked  eye, 
Coulier  recommended  the  placing  of  the  document 


44  STUDY  OF   HANDWRITING 

between  sheets  of  white  filter-paper  and  passing  a  hot 
flat-iron  over  it,  allowing  the  latter  to  remain  on  the 
spotted  parts  for  a  short  time. 

Warme  preferred  to  wet  the  suspected  document 
with  alcohol,  wrapped  in  another  piece  of  paper  also 
saturated  with  alcohol,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
out  as  yellow  rusty  marks  all  the  pen-strokes  which 
had  not  been  entirely  removed  by  the  forgers. 

This  treatment  fixes  the  appearance  of  the  spread 
lines  and  colored  spots  in  the  space  that  has  been 
washed  and  renders  more  noticeable  the  stain  caused 
by  a  partial  sizing.  In  this  manner  apparently  white 
papers  on  which  at  first  no  traces  of  characters  could 
be  found  showed  a  yellow  tinge,  denoting  the  presence 
of  previous  writing,  and  on  the  application  of  gallic 
acid  and  an  infusion  of  nut-galls  became  sufficiently 
distinct  to  permit  the  forgery  to  be  detected. 

Chevallier  and  Lassaigne  discovered  a  very  satis- 
factory method  of  making  pre\^ous  writings  appear 
by  the  aid  of  heat. 

The  paper  to  be  examined  was  placed  near  the  fire 
in  a  stove,  care  being  taken  not  to  permit  it  to  ignite, 
but  to  give  it  a  pale  yellow  chamois  color.  In  papers 
which  had  been  deprived  by  washing  of  their  writing 
the  latter  almost  immediately  reappeared.^ 

^  Dictonnaire  des  alterations  et  falsifications,  etc.,  par  Er.  Baudri- 
mont.     Sixieme  edition,  Asselin  et  Cie,  Paris,  1882. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  45 


CHAPTEE    YI. 

THE    USE    OF    MAGNIFYING   INSTRUMENTS. 

Choice  of  a  Magnifier. — Although  a  great  deal  can 
be  determined  in  a  general  way  by  close  observation 
with  the  naked  eye,  it  is  always  best  to  employ  some 
magnifying  power, — usually  an  ordinary  hand  lens  or 
pocket  magnifier  will  suffice, — but  the  writer  has 
found  it  better  to  use  a  microscope  objective  of  low 
power  (four  or  five  diameters),  which  is  pro\dded  with 
an  easily-slipping  sleeve,  terminating  in  a  diaphragm 
which  cuts  out  the  light  entering  the  outside  rim  of 
the  lens.  This  sleeve  may  be  pushed  out  for  one  or 
two  centimeters,  and  the  particular  spot  under  exam- 
ination isolated  from  the  adjacent  parts  without  undue 
magnification.  It  is  one  of  the  popular  fallacies  that  a 
high  magnifying  power  is  desirable  in  all  cases  of  difii- 
culty,  but  usually  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  questions 
of  handwriting. 

Experts  have  sometimes  impressed  the  jury  with 
the  fact  that  they  had  employed  on  some  thick  and 
opaque  document,  powers  of  several  hundred  diameters 
without  the  lately  applied  illumination  from  the  side, 
refiected  by  a  glass  plate,  introduced  obliquely  into  the 
tube  of  the  microscope.  Without  such  aid  no  micro- 
scopist  need  be  told  that  the  light  would  be  wanting 


46  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

to  illuminate  the  lield  under  these  circumstances.  The 
best  authorities  prescribe  a  magnifying  power  of  not 
more  than  ten  diameters  {Hager  and  Holdermaim :  Un- 
tersiichaigen)  for  ordinary  observations. 

Restricted  Use  of  Higher  Powers. — For  special  pur- 
poses higher  powers  are  somietimes  useful,  but  seldom 
higher  than  ninet}'  or  one  hundred  diameters. 

An  ocular  examination  of  the  ink  in  the  various 
parts  of  a  written  instrument  will  generally  decide 
whether  it  is  the  same. 

Aid.  to  determine  Slight  Differences  of  Shade. — The 
judgment  by  the  naked  e}e  as  to  the  colors  or  shades  of 
two  inks  is  very  likely  to  be  erroneous,  as  has  been  previ- 
ously said,  probably  because,  when  a  lighter  ink  is  more 
heavily  massed  than  a  darker  one,  the  effect  on  the 
retina  is  as  if  it  were  the  darker.  Under  the  magnify- 
ing glass  the  field  is  more  restricted,  the  finer  lines 
are  broadened,  and  one  has  larger  areas  of  ink  to  com- 
pare with  less  surface  of  strongly  contrasted  white 
paper.  Similarly,  an  ink  without  noticeable  bluish 
tinge  to  the  naked  eye  may  appear  quite  blue  under 
the  glass  where  the  films  of  ink  are  broadened  and 
thinned  and  their  characters  better  observed. 

The  methods  for  detecting  these  slight  differences 
by  prisms  of  colored  glass  will  be  mentioned  later. 

In  order  to  judge  whether  two  marks  have  been 
made  by  the  same  ink,  they  should  be  viewed  by  re- 
flected light  to  note  the  color,  lustre,  and  thickness  of 
the  ink  film.     Many  inks  blot  or  "  run"  on  badly-sized 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  47 

paper, — i.e.,   the   lines   are    accompaiiie'd    l)y   a   paler 
border  which  renders  their  edges  less  well  defined. 

Even  on  well-sized  papers  this  class  of  inks  usually 
exhibits  only  a  stained  line  of  no  appreciable  thick- 
ness where  the  fluid  has  touched  the  paper. 

The  copying  and  glossy  inks,  which  often  contain 
a  considerable  quantity  of  gum,  do  not  "  run"  or  blot 
even  on  partially-sized  paper,  and  show  under  the  glass 
a  convexity  on  the  surface  of  the  line  and  an  appreci- 
able thickness  of  the  film. 

It  does  not  always  follow  when  an  ink  has  made  a 
blur  on  one  part  of  the  paper  and  not  on  another 
that  the  paper  has  been  tampered  with.  A  drop  of 
water  accidentally  let  fall  on  the  blank  page  will 
frequently  aftect  the  sizing  in  that  place,  and,  be- 
sides, all  papers  are  not  evenly  sized  in  every  part. 

The  inks  rich  in  gum,  or  those  concentrated  by 
evaporation  from  standing  in  an  open  inkstand,  give 
a  more  lustrous  and  thicker  stroke.  Some  inks  pene- 
trate deeper  into  the  paper  than  others,  and  some  pro- 
duce chemical  eifects  upon  the  sizing  and  even  upon 
the  paper  itself,  so  that  the  characters  can  easily  be 
recognized  on  the  underside  of  the  slieet.  In  some 
old  documents  the  ink  has  been  known  to  so  far  de- 
stroy the  fibre  of  the  paper  that  a  slight  agitation  of 
the  sheet  would  shake  out  as  dust  much  of  the  part 
which  it  covered,  thus  leaving  an  imperfect  stencil 
plate  of  the  original  writing. 


48  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER    YIL 

THE    SEQUENCE    IN    CROSSED    LINES. 

Importance  of  Determination. — It  often  becomes 
important  to  determine  which  of  two  crossed  ink  lines 
was  written  first.  Many  cases  of  forgery  depend  upon 
the  answer  to  this  question,  which  therefore  is  one  of 
more  than  general  importance. 

As  a  rule,  when  the  underlying  line  has  been 
drawn  with  a  heavy  black  ink,  and  the  overlj'ing  line 
with  a  lighter  one,  no  direct  observation  in  the  usual 
way  will  suffice  to  determine  their  sequence  with  cer- 
tainty. 

Ink  Lines  Transparent. — Ink  films  which  appear  to 
the  eye  as  black  opaque  lines  in  contrast  with  the 
lighter  substance  on  which  they  are  written  are  not 
so  in  fact,  but,  on  the  contrary,  extremely  translucent 
and  even  transparent,  as  an  observation  of  an  ink  line 
made  with  a  pen  upon  a  piece  of  plain  glass  will  show. 
Where  the  line  is  fine,  as  it  is  in  ordinary  writing,  the 
obstruction  which  such  a  film  would  ofier  to  seeing 
objects  through  it  is  much  smaller  than  is  generally 
supposed. 

If  a  drop  of  the  heaviest  black  ink  be  placed  upon 
a  plain  glass  microscope-slide,  and  a  cover  glass  or 
another  slide  be  placed  over  it,  with  slight  pressure 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  49 

the  film  will  become  as  thin  as  it  is  after  drying  on 
ordinary  paper.  It  will  impart  some  color  to  the 
objects  viewed  through  it,  but  it  will  not  entirely  ob- 
scure even  very  light  lines  or  points  on  paper  below  it. 

This  being  the  case,  we  should  regard  two  crossed 
lines  as  transparent  films  like  two  strips  of  lightly- 
colored  glass  crossing  each  other.  The  light  which  falls 
at  the  point  of  intersection  penetrates  to  the  paper  be- 
low, and  is  reflected  to  the  eye  with  a  loss  by  absorp- 
tion equal  to  the  absorptive  power  of  both  of  them  to- 
gether. That  light  which  strikes  but  one  of  the  lines 
loses  in  its  passage  through  the  film  onl}^  so  much  of 
its  rays  as  that  one  ink  with  the  thickness  in  which  it 
appears  is  capable  of  absorbing.  Consequently  the 
absorption  at  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  limbs  of 
tlie  cross  will  be  greater,  and  the  color  darker  than 
on  either  of  the  two  branches  which  make  the  cross. 
Each  of  the  films  is  usually  so  thin  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  observe  any  stereoscopic  eftect  when  the 
direction  of  light  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
paper.  Two  phenomena,  however,  may  sometimes 
l)e  observed  in  this  way,  which  bear  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  superposition. 

Widening-  of  the  Upper  Line. — The  overlying  line  is 
likely  to  show  a  widening  which  is  masked  at  the 
small  area  of  their  intersection  for  the  reason  just 
given,  namely,  because  their  respective  eftects  upon 
light  over  this  little  square  are  so  blended  that  they 
cannot  be  separately  distinguished  by  the  eye,  but  if 

4 


50  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

the  colors  or  shades  are  sufficiently  different  to  enable 
the  eye  to  distinguish  one  ink  from  the  other  (as  is 
likely  to  be  the  case  if  any  considerable  period  of  time 
have  elapsed  between  the  tracing  of  the  two  lines),  the 
line  of  the  later  ink  will  often  be  seen  to  broaden  just 
before  it  traverses  the  first,  and  to  narrow  on  leaving 
it.  See  Plate  I.,  Fig.  1,  which  is  a  photograph  of  a 
cross  made  with  red  ink  and  magnified  twenty-four 
diameters.  The  line  c  d  was  drawn  over  a  b  while  the 
latter  was  wet.  Observe  the  broadening  of  the  de- 
scending line  c  d  at  the  first  and  its  narrowing  at  the 
last  contact  with  a  b.  If  the  two  fluids  are  indistin- 
guishable in  color,  lustre,  or  shade,  etc.,  this  method 
will  fail.  The  broadening  effect  due  to  cajDillarity 
will  be  greater  when  the  lower  line  is  still  wet  than 
when  it  is  dry. 

Plate  I.,  Fig.  2,  represents  a  twelve-fold  linear  en- 
largement of  part  of  a  letter  in  a  signature.  The 
straight  line  passes  over  the  curved  line.  The  broad- 
ening of  the  straight  upper  line  as  it  crosses  the  curved 
line  from  left  to  right,  and  its  narrowing  on  leaving  it, 
are  probably  due  to  the  passage  of  the  ink  line  into 
and  out  of  the  sphere  of  capillary  attraction  of  the 
still  moist  underlying  line.  Plate  I.,  Fig.  3  represents 
the  same  object  magnified  thirty-five  diameters. 

Staining-  of  Straggling  Fibres. — The  other  obser- 
vation also  applies  to  those  cases  where  there  is  a 
visible  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  two  inks 
whereby  the  overlying  ink  imparts  its  color,  or  lus- 


PLATE    I. 

Fici.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fia.  3. 


AND    DETECTIOX   OF    FORGERY.  51 

tre,  or  other  visible  peculiarity  to  the  lower  ink  at 
their  place  of  crossing.  Often  when  a  more  glossy 
ink  underlies,  this  appearance  will  be  nothing  more 
than  a  slight  dulling  of  the  lustre,  or  if  the  overlying 
ink  have  a  peculiar  color  a  few  straggling  fibres  may 
be  noticed  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  place  of  junction 
which  show  traces  of  this  color.  If  there  be  no  such 
differences  between  the  inks  this  method  also  is  in- 
applicable. 

Method  by  Oblique  Vision. — A  third  method  em- 
ployed by  the  writer  has  been  more  successful.  It  is 
by  viewing  the  crossed  lines  obliquely. 

If  two  strips  of  differently-shaded  glass  be  crossed, 
the  edges  of  the  square  formed  by  their  junction  bound 
with  black  tape  (to  conceal  as  far  as  possible  which 
strip  is  uppermost),  and  the  whole  backed  by  white 
paper  and  held  several  feet  from  the  observer  in  a 
strong  light,  the  central  square  of  their  junction  will 
appear  darker  than  either  of  the  strips,  and  it  will  not 
be  easy  to  determine  which  of  the  two  is  uppermost. 
If  now  this  cross,  with  its  paper,  be  gradually  inclined 
to  the  horizon,  less  and  less  of  the  rays  which  strike 
its  surface  will  twice  traverse  both  plates  at  their 
junction  before  reaching  the  eye,  and  the  number  of 
rays  which  penetrate  only  the  upper  strip  and  reach 
the  eye  will  be  continually  greater  at  each  successive 
degree  of  inclination. 

When  the  angle  is  such  that  no  rays  which  pene- 
trate both  glass  strips  at  their  junction  reach  the  eye, 


52  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

the  overlying  strip  will  be  seen  to  correspond  in  color 
and  other  characteristics  with  two  of  the  arms  of  the 
cross,  and  to  diifer  from  the  other  two.  The  upper- 
most strip  will  appear  to  be  (as  it  is  in  reality)  a  con- 

FiG.  6. 


tinuous  body,  either  lighter  or  darker  than  the  other, 
from  the  extremity  of  one  arm  across  the  middle 
square  to  the  opposite  extremity.  The  underh'ing 
strip  will  seem  to  be  cut  in  two,  and  its  peculiarities 
of  color,  lustre,  structure,  etc.,  will  only  appear  in  the 
two  opposite  arms,  divided  by  a  square  centre  which 
does  not  share  them. 

Applying  this  principle  to  the  crossing  of  lines  of 
ink  on  a  paper,  if  a  lens  of  small  magnifying  power 
be  so  placed  that  the  axis  of  vision  be  inclined  at  an 
acute  angle  to  the  plane  of  the  paper,  and  directed 
to  the  place  of  junction,  the  illumination  as  before 
being  oblique,  one  of  the  two  lines,  whether  it  be 
lighter  or  darker  than  the  other,  will  be  seen  to 
make  one  continuous  limb  of  the  cross  alike  in 
color  or  shade  from  end  to  end.  Such  a  line  is  the 
upper  one. 


PLATE    II. 


16 


>— 


16 


A  1 


I 


Bl 


16 


A  2 


f 

B2 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  53 

Plate  II.,  Figs.  A,  Al,  A2,  B,  Bl,  B2,  represent 
photo-micrographs  of  intersections  of  the  lightest  and 
the  darkest  of  commercial  inks.  The  darker  (desig- 
nated by  C  wlien  it  is  underneath  and  by  3  when  it 
is  above)  and  the  lighter  (designated  by  R  when  it  is 
underneath  and  by  16  when  it  is  the  upper  line)  are 
given  each  once  in  an  inferior  and  once  in  superior 
position  by  perpendicular,  and  twice  in  each  situa- 
tion by  oblique  vision.  The  more  strongly  marked 
character  of  the  darker  ink  makes  it  appear  to  be  the 
superior  line  in  both  cases  where  the  axis  of  the  pho- 
tographic instrument  was  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  the  paper.  When  these  same  slides  are  photo- 
graphed with  the  axis  of  the  instrument  oblique  to 
the  plane  of  the  paper,  however,  the  true  order  of 
superposition  becomes  apparent  to  the  eye.  (See  Al, 
A2,  Bl,  B2.)  The  ^o.  16  ink,  although  much  lighter 
in  color  than  the  other,  is  distinctly  seen  to  pass  con- 
tinuously across  the  darker  ink  in  an  uninterrupted 
line  in  Al  and  A2. 

It  will  be  understood  by  those  familiar  with  micro- 
scope photography  that  if  the  plane  of  an  object  be 
ever  so  slightly  oblique  to  the  axis  of  the  instrument 
only  a  very  minute  area  adjoining  the  axis  ot"  rotation 
will  be  ai'in'oxiniately  in  focus,  and  in  all  positions 
except  where  the  plane  of  the  slide  is  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  microscope,  the  front  and  rear  por- 
tions of  this  plane  will  be  out  of  focus. 

This  gives  to  the  inlc  line  [)c'r[H'n(licular  to  the  axis 


54  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

of  rotation  less  intensity  than  it  really  lias,  and  might 
lead  some  persons  to  snppose  that,  owing  to  this  fact 
alone,  the  lighter  ink  maintains  its  character  across 
the  darker.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  portion  of  the  darker  line  which  is  crossed  by  the 
lighter  is  equally  with  the  latter  in  focus.  This  cross- 
ing is  not  a  mathematical  point,  but  an  area  of  sensi- 
ble magnitude  rendered  easily  visible  by  the  mag- 
nification employed.  If  the  darker  line  were  really 
superposed,  therefore,  it  would  appear  to  be  the  darker 
in  all  positions  and  under  any  illumination,  as  can  be 
seen  in  Figs.  Bl  and  B2. 

Figs.  A2  and  Bl  are  represented  in  order  to  show 
that  the  appearance  is  the  same  when  the  underlying 
line  is  made  to  coincide  with  the  axis  of  rotation  of 
the  slide.  In  Fig.  A2  the  same  slide  was  photo- 
graphed as  in  Al,  but  the  overlying  ink,  16,  instead 
of  crossing  the  field  from  left  to  right  runs  from  top 
to  bottom,  yet  although  by  this  position  the  extremities 
of  this  line  are  out  of  focus,  it  is  clearly  seen  to  over- 
lie the  line  C. 

In  the  figure  B2  the  overlying  ink,  ISTo.  3,  is  as  dis- 
tinctly above  the  line  R  while  in  a  horizontal  position 
as  it  is  in  Bl  while  in  a  vertical  position. 

A2  and  B2  were  prepared  to  meet  a  possible  objec- 
tion that  either  ink  may  be  made  to  appear  the  upper 
or  the  lower  in  a  phototype  reproduction  according  to 
tlie  manner  of  its  presentation.  This  is  true  of  the 
lighter   of    two   inks,    but   not   of  the    darker.      Xo 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  55 

change  in  the  conditions  of  making  the  picture  could 
make  ink  Xo.  3  appear  to  be  the  lower  in  the  three 
figures  B,  Bl,  and  B2,  as  Mr.  Wingate  states  in  his 
note  which  follows.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that 
these  phototypes  have  not  been  retouched  or  the  nega- 
tives altered  in  any  way. 

The  phenomenon  is  much  easier  to  observe  in  the 
microscope  than  to  represent  in  a  photograph  or  a 
phototype  print  made  from  one,  for  the  reason  that  the 
"  glare"  or  lustre  from  the  surface  of  the  paper  inter- 
feres with  the  definition  of  the  ink  lines. 

Nevertheless,  Mr.  Harold  Wingate,  of  Philadelphia, 
an  amateur  who  has  devoted  much  time  and  achieved 
great  success  in  microscope-photography,  has  suc- 
ceeded in  fixing  the  image  seen  by  the  eye  as  a  posi- 
tive on  glass,  and  has  then  enlarged  this  to  a  glass 
negative.  The  ditficulties  he  encountered  were  greater 
than  we  had  supposed,  although  we  had  not  been  sure 
of  attaining  the  desired  end. 

His  account  of  the  method  he  found  it  necessary  to 

pursue  here  follows : 

Philadelphia,  April  lit,  1894. 
Dr.  Persifor  Frazer: 

Mv  dear  Doctor, — I  am  sending  you  to-day  the  last  negative  of 
the  series  illustrating  your  method  of  determining  the  superposition 
of  pen-strokes.  I  first  photographed  the  crosses  C  —  16  and  K  —  3, 
magnified  to  a  little  more  than  twenty  diameters,  with  the  light  ink 
horizontal  and  the  dark  ink  vertical  in  both  instances;  but  in  the 
former  (C  — 16)  the  light  ink,  16,  superposed,  and  in  the  latter  (R  —  3) 
the  same  light  ink,  R,  underneath.  I  used  a  one-and-one-half-inch 
objective  and  a  Lieberkuhn,  getting  thereby  a  nearly  vertical  illumi- 


56 


STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 


nation,  or  almost  the  same  effect  as  is  seen  in  the  microscope  when 
diffused  daylight  is  used  as  the  illuminant.  You  notice  that  both 
photographs  show  the  dark  ink  on  top.  (See  A  and  B.) 

In  order  to  get  pictures  of  the  slides  in  an  inclined  position,  after 
much  experimentation  I  was  forced  to  construct  a  photo-micro- 
graphic  camera  for  the  purpose,  with  the  stage  of  the  microscope 
part  inclinable  throughout   ninety  degrees  distally.      (See  Fig.   7.) 

Fig.  7. 


As  a  good  microscope  lens  has  almost  no  depth  of  focus,  it  was  im- 
possible to  get  immediately  an  enlarged  picture  of  the  cross,  as  only 
one  plane  would  be  in  focus  at  one  time.  Mr.  Zentmayer  kindly 
lent  me  a  lens  made  on  the  principle  of  the  portrait-lens  of  two  inch 
equivalent  focus,  and  I  stopped  it  down  to  f.  20.  With  this  I  was 
able  to  get  a  fair  field  and  a  magnification  of  a  little  more  than  one- 
half  diameter.  From  negatives  made  in  this  way  lantern-slides  were 
made  by  contact,  and  from  these  the  larger  negatives, — thus  bringing 
the  enlargement  up  to  more  than  four  diameters. 

The  direct  negatives  were  made  by  daylight,  facing  a  small  win- 
dow, with  the  stage  at  an  angle  of  8°  to  11°  upward  inclination 
from  the  optical  axis  of  the  lens,  and  the  whole  apparatus  inclined  in 
such  a  way  that  the  stage  holding  the  slide  was  nearly  horizontal,  or 
inclined  a  little  downward. 

In  slide  R  —  3,  where  the  very  black   ink  was  on  top,  no   great 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  57 

trouble  was  encountered  in  photographing  the  cross  as  it  appears  to 
the  eye  ;  but  in  C  —  16,  where  the  light  ink,  16,  formed  a  very  thin 
layer  over  the  underlying  black  stroke,  it  became  difficult  to  make 
the  plate  reproduce  what  the  ej'e  saw,  as  the  underlying  mass  of  black 
at  the  cross  dominated  the  fainter  ink,  owing  to  the  greater  absorp- 
tion of  light  at  this  point ;  but  by  slightly  rotating  the  whole  appa- 
ratus to  the  right  or  left  I  found  that  an  illumination  could  be 
secured  which  gave  the  diflerentiating  tone  to  the  lighter  ink  and 
permitted  the  taking  of  a  photograph  showing  the  continuity  of  the 
superposed  line.  But  in  this  case  of  C  — 16,  if  the  light  16  ink  were 
not  on  top,  I  could  not  by  any  possible  means  make  it  appear  so, 
nor  do  I  believe  any  one  else  can. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Harold  Wingate. 

For  ordinary  puqioses  the  compound  microscope, 
consisting  of  an  eye-piece  as  well  as  an  objective 
lens,  is  not  necessary,  and  the  test  is  more  easily  made 
with  such  a  long  focus  and  low  power  objective  as 
was  alluded  to  on  a  previous  page. 

If,  for  instance,  a  one-and-a-half-inch  objective  with 
a  tubular  diaphragm  be  laid  almost  parallel  with  the 
paper,  and  the  latter  held  towards  a  good  but  not 
too  strong  sky-light,  the  order  of  placing  two  crossed 
lines  will  be  observable  with  greater  facility  than  in  a 
compound  microscope. 


58  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

HESITATION    AND    TREMOR    OF  FEEBLENESS,  ILLITERACY,  OR 

FRAUD. 

Labored  Writing. — It  is  not  always  an  evidence  of 
fraudulent  intent  that  the  writing  shows  evidences  of 
slow  and  labored  motion  of  the  pen,  but  in  connection 
with  other  facts  this  becomes  an  important  point  to 
observe.  It  has  been  stated  under  the  head  of  gen- 
eral observations  of  a  writing  that  the  hesitation  and 
tremor,  as  shown  by  an  illiterate  person,  by  a  feeble 
person  or  one  under  some  condition  of  mental  aber- 
ration, and  by  a  well-skilled  penman  anxious  to 
deceive,  are  all  dift'erent.  The  pen-strokes  of  the 
illiterate  person  are  strong  enough,  but  uneven  and 
erratic.  No  strokes  nor  parts  of  strokes  are  sym- 
metrical. The  handwriting  is  unformed  and  child- 
like, but  not  lacking  in  vigor.  The  pauses  are  made 
because  of  the  inability  of  the  writer  to  continue  a 
line  to  its  required  length  by  a  proper  accommodation 
of  the  muscles,  or  to  avoid  an  accidental  obstacle,  such 
as  a  grain  of  hard  pulp  or  a  crease  in  the  paper,  with- 
out making  the  pen  sputter  or  taking  a  new  position 
with  the  hand.  The  attempt  to  imitate  a  copy  or 
ideal  in  tracing  a  word  or  signature  is  similar  to 
an  attempt  by  the   same   hand  to  copy  a  landscape 


AND    DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  69 

or  to  improvise  one.  Undue  force  is  usually  appar- 
ent everywhere,  except  on  the  hair-lines,  where  the 
attempt  to  be  gentle  necessitates  drawing  them  slowly, 
and  therefore  in  uncertain  wavy  lines.  Parts  of  let- 
ters are  drawn  out  of  shape,  and  other  parts  written 
over  them,  as  if  the  writer  had  memorized  a  certain 
number  of  strokes  which  it  was  necessary  to  make, 
and  made  them  consecutively  without  regard  to  where 
his  pen  might  be  at  the  time  he  began  each.  In  this 
respect  it  resembles  the  writing  in  the  dark  of  a  man 
whose  faculties  are  dulled  by  fatigue  or  drugs. 

Feebleness. — The  signature  or  other  writing  of  a 
not  inexperienced  penman,  who  is  ill  or  feeble,  is 
characterized  by  a  general  lightness  of  stroke  and 
much  tremulousness.  If  any  parts  of  the  lines  are 
heavy,  these  parts  are  short,  and  not  infrequently 
terminate  with  a  perforation  of  the  paper. 

Ftq.  8. 


Tremor  of  Feebleness. 

The  pressure  of  the  fingers  is  light,  and  the  attempt 
to  make  parts  of  the  writing  heavier  is  by  throwing  too 
much  weight  upon  the  pen  without  the  ability  to  ac- 
curately gauge  the  amount  of  the  added  pressure,  with 
the  result  frequently  of  a  puncture  of  the  paper. 
No  line  of  any  considerable  length  is  free  from  the 


60  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

wavy  evidences  of  tremor,  yet  there  is  a  distinct 
resemblance  between  the  word  and  the  same  word 
written  in  a  state  of  health. 

In  the  example  given  of  the  tremor  due  to  feebleness 
(the  word  "  Philada"),  it  is  clearly  manifest  not  only 
that  the  idea  of  form  which  the  writer  had  in  his  mind 
was  excellent,  but  that  in  the  main  it  was  well  carried 
out.  The  mean  of  all  the  divergences  and  waved 
lines  makes  a  well-formed  and  symmetrical  word.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  persistence  in  flourishes 
which  bring  out  into  prominence  the  writer's  weak- 
ness, and  the  correct  general  direction  in  forming  the 
letters  are  unusual,  but  the  same  features  may  be 
observed  in  lesser  degree  on  any  writing  of  a  good 
penman  which  is  tremulous  on  account  of  his  feeble- 
ness. 

All  the  points  noted  as  characteristic  of  this  kind 
of  imperfect  writing  are  strongl}'^  accentuated  in  this 
example.  The  writer  was  a  gentleman  of  over  ninety 
years  of  age. 

Illiteracy. — In  the  case  just  mentioned  there  is  a 
manifest  attempt  to  reproduce  a  reasonable  ideal  which 
is  partially  successful,  whereas  in  the  illiterate  signa- 
ture the  attempt  seems  to  be  to  repeat  a  certain  num- 
ber of  up-and-down  strokes  and  their  connecting 
strokes  without  considering  as  a  whole  what  thev  were 
intended  to  produce.  An  identification  of  the  signa- 
ture of  a  very  illiterate  person  becomes  almost  purely 
an  identification  of  separate  lines  or  letters. 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  61 

The  example  of  the  tremor  clue  to  illiteracy  is  given 
in  the  word  "Pennsylvania."     It  was  obtained  from 

Fig.  9. 
Tremor  of  Illiteracy 

an  ignorant  carter,  who,  however,  was  not  illiterate 
enough  to  produce  so  good  a  type  as  the  preceding. 
The  tremors  and  angular  features  introduced  are  by 
no  means  indicative  of  lack  of  power,  but  the  power 
is  misdirected.  After  traversing  the  road  which  traced 
the  name  of  the  great  Colonial  Governor,  the  real 
difficulties  begin,  and  in  the  struggle  to  master  them 
the  combat  is  transferred  far  from  the  guide-line  of  the 
paper.  The  last  three  syllables  are  little  else  than  a 
repetition  of  the  prescribed  number  of  strokes  up  and 
down,  but  the  second  part  of  the  "  n"  has  been  carried 
over  to  the  "  i"  and  has  made  an  "  n"  of  that  letter, 
so  that  the  appearance  of  the  word  resembles  "  Penn- 
sylzoina." 

It  is  instructive  to  compare  the  two  words  with  each 
other. 

Fraud. — The  simulated  tremor  of  a  skilful  penman 
is  rarely  successful  in  deceiving  a  trained  eye  aided  by 
a  moderate  magnification  of  the  writing. 

The  tendency  to  produce  symmetrical  tracings  and 
natural  curves  is  a  second  nature  which  cannot  be 
readily  overcome.     Under  the  microscope  the  rhyth- 


62  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

mic  lapses  from  easy  to  perturbed  writing  and  back 
again,  remind  one  of  the  imitation  of  a  drunken  man 
in  amateur  theatricals.  The  things  which  are  really 
difficult  for  an  illiterate  or  feeble  person  to  do,  such  as 
the  proper  union  of  the  small  letters,  are  performed 
usually  with  address,  as  if  the  writer  were  in  a  hurry 
to  commence  acting  his  part  in  the  next  following  let- 
ter. The  dash  (if  there  he  one)  will  assume  a  graceful 
curve.  The  dot  will  appear  in  the  place  where  the 
forger  is  accustomed  to  write  it,  or  if  both  of  these  be 
carefully  imitated  there  is  sure  to  be  some  betrayal  in 
the  crossing  of  the  "  t's,"  the  shading  of  some  of  the 
letters,  the  preservation  of  a  straight  line  for  the  base 
line,  or  in  some  other  part  of  the  writing. 

Fig.  10. 

Tremor  of  Fraud. 

The  signature  of  Isaac  Taylor,  above  represented, 
will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  tremor  almost  in- 
separable from  forgery. 

A  comparison  of  this  signature  and  those  of  George 
W.  Hawley  and  Enos  V.  Garrett  (Fig.  12),  with  the 
composites  of  the  names  they  were  intended  to  simu- 
late (Plate  VI.),  will  illustrate  the  fundamental  dif- 
ferences of  their  characters  and  also  the  difficulty 
experienced  by  a  good  penman  in  feigning  to  be  a  bad 
one.     The  real  signature  of  Isaac  Taylor  is  not  only 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  63 

tremulous  from  age,  but  is  angular,  unsymmetrical, 
and  lacking  in  proper  curves  or  proper  straight  lines. 
The  forged  signature,  on  the  contrary,  is  full  of  evi- 
dences that  the  hand  which  traced  it  was  accustomed 
to  make  both  with  unusual  skill.  Observe,  for  in- 
stance, the  general  accuracy  of  the  slope  of  the  down 
stroke  in  the  initial  I,  and  T,  and  the  1,  and  first  part 
of  the  y. 

In  these  and  similar  instances  used  in  the  book  for 
illustrations,  for  special  reasons  the  tables  of  measure- 
ment have  not  been  printed.  It  will  be  apparent  that 
such  a  table  would  show  the  same  discrepancies  which 
have  been  fully  set  forth  in  the  preceding  pages,  where 
the  names  have  not  been  given.  The  purpose  of  these 
illustrations  was  to  show  that  the  method  of  study  by 
composite  photography  is  valuable  in  getting  at  essen- 
tial character  and  in  detecting  fraud. 

The  tremors  of  a  simulating  hand  are  never  so 
numerous  nor  so  fine  as  real  tremors. 

Observations  will  be  referred  to  farther  on  which 
demonstrate  that  in  a  single  long  stroke,  like  that 
of  an  "f"  or  an  "1,"  there  are  often  many  devia- 
tions right  and  left  from  the  straight  line  which  the 
will  desires  to  trace,  by  the  ordinary  penman  in  a 
normal  state  of  health;  and,  while  it  is  not  possible 
that  these  should  exactly  overlap  in  any  two  signa- 
tures, nor  probable  that  they  are  invariably  identical 
in  number,  yet  in  both  respects  two  such  lines  by  the 
same  hand  are  apt  to  resemble  each  other  more  closely 


64  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

than  any  such  line  by  another  hand  will  resemble  either 
of  them.  This  tremor  is  natural  to  all  hands,  and  is 
what  prevents  the  most  practised  hand  from  drawing 
a  perfect  straight  or  curved  line,  though  its  effects  are 
not  easily  visible  except  by  the  use  of  magnifiers. 
The  faltering  due  to  age  or  feebleness  is  greater  in  the 
excursions  of  the  pen  ;  but,  besides  this,  these  devi- 
ations have  superposed  upon  them  even  more  numer- 
ous and  finer  tremors  than  are  observed  in  the  writing 
of  a  person  in  health. 

So  fine  are  these,  indeed,  that  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
can  be  simulated,  and  still  more  doubtful  if  the 
tremors,  even  if  artificially  produced,  would  resemble 
those  they  were  intended  to  imitate. 

If  this  be  so,  one  of  the  best  means  of  detecting  the 
fraudulent  character  of  a  writing  purporting  to  be  by 
a  feeble  person  is  the  comparison  of  the  tremors  evi- 
denced in  his  genuine  writing  with  those  in  the  sus- 
pected imitation. 

Retouching. — The  repainting  or  retouching  of  a 
letter  or  part  of  a  letter  is  not  always  evidence  of 
fraud.  Many  persons  contract  the  bad  habit  of  going 
over  what  they  have  written  with  a  pen  to  correct 
blemishes,  and  this  habit  sometimes  becomes  so  pro- 
nounced that  the  writer  invariably  repaints  his  signa- 
ture, whether  it  show  blemishes  or  not.  To  a  person 
in  the  habit  of  retouching  his  own  writing  an  uncon- 
scious skill  is  ultimately  developed  which  enables  him 
to  put  his  pen  at  the  exact  point  required,  and  to  join 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  65 

two  disconnected  lines  with  an  accuracy  far  in  excess 
of  anything  else  of  the  same  kind  which  he  is  capable 
of  accomplishing.  It  is  not  rare  to  discover  the  habit 
only  after  a  minute  examination  of  numerous  speci- 
mens of  the  writing  under  considerable  magnitication. 

N^o  hand  is  capable  of  tracing  a  line  of  any  great 
length  on  paper  without  leaving  traces  of  deviation 
from  its  projected  direction.  The  more  nervous  the 
hand,  the  greater  and  more  numerous  will  be  these 
deviations.  In  the  hand  of  one  sufi'ering  from  illness 
or  weak  from  age  the  deviations  will  be  most  pro- 
nounced. To  a  less  degree  the  same  will  be  observed 
in  a  hand  which  is  striving  to  accomplish  something- 
difficult,  and  to  avoid  betraying  itself  by  falling  into 
numerous  pitfalls.  However  expert  the  writer,  if 
the  copy  is  beset  with  little  peculiarities  the  tracing 
will  be  slower  than  is  his  usual  habit,  and  the  natural 
and  unavoidable  divergence  from  his  ideal  will  have 
superadded  to  it  that  which  comes  from  decreased 
rapidity  of  execution.  It  is  like  the  deviation  caused 
by  the  wind  in  projectiles.  The  greater  the  velocity 
of  the  latter  the  less  will  be  the  eftect  of  the  perturbing 
force. 

One  peculiarity  of  these  tremors  is  that  in  a  practised 
hand  they  are  not  easily  visiljle  except  under  consider- 
able magnification.  With  a  power  of  fifty  or  sixty 
diameters  they  l)ecome  plain,  and  little  knots  appear 
in  the  writing  which  were  almost  unnoticealde  before, 
and  which  seem  to  be  due  to  the  continued  flow  of 


66  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

ink  from  a  nibbed  pen  which  has  been  brought  for 
an  instant  to  a  full  stop  in  the  course  of  forming  a 
letter  owing  to  some  feature  in  the  copy  which  re- 
quired a  new  adjustment  of  muscles  to  execute. 

The  natural  tremors  which  can  be  discovered  in 
free-hand  w^riting  are  surprisingly  numerous,  including 
under  that  name  all  changes  in  pressure  on  the  pen 
as  well  as  alterations  in  the  direction  of  its  movement. 
Making  due  allowance  for  the  irregularities  in  the 
paper,  which  would  show  differences  in  the  result 
when  none  existed  in  the  motor,  there  are  probably 
not  less  than  three  or  four  in  every  centimeter  of 
average  handwriting. 

There  have  been  shown  more  than  twenty  impulses 
superposed  upon  the  force  exerted  by  a  writer  of 
moderate  skill  in  tracing  the  sino-le  stem  of  a  lono;  "  f." 
If  this  be  so,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  anticipate  that 
twice  that  many  may  be  found  in  the  writing  of  the 
sick  or  infirm.  In  fact,  the  number  of  these  deviations 
is  concealed  by  the  coarseness  of  the  tracing  in  which 
they  are  sought.  If  writing  were  produced  by  a  very 
fine-pointed  stylus,  this  number  would  probably  be  very 
much  increased. 

With  a  previous  knowledge  of  the  signature,  and  the 
peculiarities  which  a  forger  would  have  to  imitate,  it  is 
of  great  importance  to  note  wdiere  the  hesitation  is 
shown  by  the  examination  under  the  microscope. 

If  it  occur  just  before  these  diflicult  parts  are  at- 
tempted, it  will  probably  distinguish  false  wa-iting  from 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  67 

genuine,  because  habit  will  have  caused  the  originator 
of  these  peculiarities  to  write  them  with  as  much  free- 
dom as  any  other  part. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE    SUBSTANCE    WRITTEN    UPON. 

Materials  of  which  It  is  made. — The  material  which 
bears  the  writing  nnder  investigation  may  be  of  cotton, 
linen,  esparto,  wood  pulp,  or  parchment.  All  but  the 
last  have  readily  recognizable  fibres,  each  differing  in 
appearance  and  in  fact  from  the  other.  Photo-micro- 
graphs of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  "  Text-Book  of 
Paper  Making,"  ^  by  C.  T.  Cross  and  E.  .J.  Bevan, 
and  in  other  similar  treatises  and  articles. 

Paper  Making-. — The  fibres  are  interlocked  with 
each  other  during  the  process  of  "  beating"  the  pulp, 
and  are  further  "  loaded"  with  clay,  kaolin,  or  an  as- 
bestos-like material  called  "  agalite,"  which  is  nearly 
pure  magnesium  silicate.  These  materials,  which  are 
added  to  all  but  special  grades  of  paper,  are  not  harm- 
ful constituents  unless  in  excessive  amount,  and  the  last 
named  being  by  nature  fibrous,  like  the  organic  mate- 
rials with  which  it  is  mixed,  assists  in  binding  them 
together  and  imparts  a  hard  finish  to  the  paper.     The 

'  E.  «&  F.  N.  Spun,  125  Strand,  London,  and  35  Murray  Street, 
New  York,  1888. 


68  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

"  pearl   hardening"  is  effected  bj  means  of  precipi- 
tated calcium  sulphate  (gypsum,  plaster  of  Paris), 

In  addition  to  these  "  loading"  ingredients,  papers 
intended  to  be  written  upon  are  "  sized"  or  immersed 
in  an  aluminum  resinate  soap  mixed  with  about  one- 
third  its  weight  of  starch  paste,  which  serves  to  hold 
together  the  fibres  and  also  to  prevent  the  ink  from 
running.  After  about  four  parts  by  weight  of  this 
mixture  to  one  hundred  parts  of  the  pulp  have  been 
thoroughly  mixed,  a  solution  of  alum  is  run  in,  after 
having  been  dissolved  in  lead  or  copper  tanks,  as  this 
substance  acts  rapidly  on  iron,  and  would  saturate  the 
pulp  with  the  iron  salt  and  thus  impair  its  value.  It 
may  be  said  that,  in  spite  of  the  careful  preparation  of 
the  paper  pulp,  the  finished  product  is  often  adul- 
terated by  iron  in  some  slight  degree  and  will  give  a 
reaction  for  that  metal  by  a  sufficiently  delicate  test. 
Nearly  three  times  the  amount  of  alum  is  required  to 
precipitate  the  resin  from  its  combination  with  sodium. 
Ultramarine  blues  and  aniline  pinks  are  added  to 
counteract  the  yellowish  color  of  the  cellulose.  Hand- 
made papers  are  sized  by  dipping  them  into  a  solution 
of  gelatin  and  hanging  them  up  on  lines  or  poles  to 
dry.  The  sheets  are  then  calendered,  either  by  pass- 
ing them  between  heated  or  cold  metallic  rolls,  or  one 
of  metal  and  one  of  compressed  paper ;  or  by  pressing 
them  in  larger  bundles  of  alternating  paper  and  metal 
plates  (Gross  and  Bevan).  The  effect  of  this  is  to  give 
the  surface  of  the  paper  a  hard  and  often  polished  sur- 


AXD    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  69 

face,  on  which  tlie  tracing  of  ink  remains  without 
running-  or  V)lotting,  and  is  absorbed  into  the  loading 
and  size  and  also  stains  the  fibres  of  paper  of  which 
these  materials  fill  the  interstices. 

Erasures. — When  an  erasure  is  made  on  the  surface 
of  such  a  paper,  the  mineral  and  organic  materials  of 
the  sizing  and  loading  are  removed,  and  the  fibres 
of  the  paper  which  they  unite  are  deranged  in  form 
and  position.  Such  a  surface  exhibits  invariably  the 
teased-up  ends  of  the  fibres,  and  generally  shows  by 
tlie  agreement  in  their  direction  in  what  way  the 
scratching  was  done. 

Even  in  cases  where  a  substitute  for  the  sizing  has 
been  so  successfully  added  that  no  change  in  color 
or  surface  is  observable,  the  fibres  will  show  by  their 
unusual  positions  that  they  have  been  disturbed. 
When  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  write  over  the 
place  without  sufiiciently  restoring  the  sizing,  the 
effects  can  be  seen  in  the  running  of  the  ink  between 
the  fibres  and  the  staining  of  the  body  of  the  paper 
to  a  considerable  depth  from  the  surface  and  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  spot. 

Insertion  of  Pages. — In  cases  where  a  document  of 
more  than  one  page  is  under  investigation,  and  tam- 
pering is  suspected  with  only  one  or  more  of  the 
sheets,  a  general  investigation  of  the  character  of  the 
paper,  as  well  as  of  the  ink  in  each  sheet,  becomes 
necessary.  If  the  paper  be  ruled,  careful  measure- 
ments of  the  distance  apart  of  the  lines  in  each  sheet 


70  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

and  the  distances  of  the  iirst  and  last  lines  from  the 
upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  paper  should  be  made 
and  compared. 

"Water-marks. — Any  water-mark  or  other  device 
wrought  into  the  paper  should  be  looked  for.  The 
water-mark  is  made  by  receiving  the  soft  pulp  on  a 
wire  screen  on  which  a  design  of  some  kind  is  placed. 
When  this  pulp  is  raised  out  of  the  tub,  there  is  less 
pulp  over  the  raised  design  (or  more  if  the  design  be 
in  relief)  than  in  the  rest  of  the  sheet,  and  although 
the  subsequent  pressure  to  which  the  paper  is  sub- 
jected prevents  the  eye  from  detecting  the  difterence 
in  thickness,  the  design  remains. 

Other  marks  are  introduced  by  the  "  dandy  roll,"  a 
light  roll  covered  with  raised  wires  in  the  form  de- 
sired, pressing  lightly  on  the  paper  while  still  moist, 
while  the  other  side  has  the  mark  of  the  Avire  cloth. 
If  the  "  dandy  roll"  be  also  covered  with  wire  cloth, 
the  two  sides  appear  alike,  and  the  paper  is  called 
"  wove"  {Cross  and  Bevan). 

Any  such  marks  in  the  paper  furnish  excellent 
means  of  establishing  whether  or  not  one  or  more  of 
the  sheets  of  the  document  has  been  substituted. 
"When  the  water-mark  is  faint,  or  not  immediately 
noticeable  while  using  the  paper,  it  is  so  much  the 
better  as  a  means  of  identification. 

Concealment  of  Tell-tale  Spots. — Awkward  marks 
which  might  prove  tell-tales  are  sometimes  scribbled 
over  with  a  pen,  or  covered  by  a  seal,  or  in  by-gone 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  71 

(lays,  when  wafers  were  coninioiily  used  to  close  let- 
ters, one  of  them  was  affixed  to  the  paper.  Chevallier 
and  Lessaigne  have  met  with  a  case  where  pieces  of 
])aper  were  pasted  over  the  suspicious  place. 

A  patient  and  systematic  study  of  the  paper  will 
usually  lead  to  a  suspicion  of  such  treatment,  and  will 
suggest  means  for  its  discovery. 

Parchments. — It  sometimes  happens  that  the  docu- 
ment is  a  veritable  parchment.  Parchments  are 
usually  made  of  the  skin  of  sheep  or  lambs,  if  in- 
tended for  writing  purposes.  Goat  and  wolf  skins 
used  to  be  employed  for  drum-heads  ( Peignot). 

The  finer  and  smoother  sorts  of  parchment  called 
vellum  are  nuade  from  the  skins  of  very  young  calves. 

The  preparation  of  the  skin  for  writing  purposes 
has  scarcely  been  improved  since  the  time  when 
Hildebert,  Archbishop  of  Tours  (born  1054),  described 
it  incidentally  in  a  sermon.  He  says,  "  A  writer  first 
cleanses  his  parchment  from  the  grease,  and  takes  off 
most  of  the  dirt.  He  then  entirely  rubs  off  the  hair 
and  fibres  with  })umice  stone.  If  he  did  not  do  so  the 
letters  upon  it  would  not  be  good,  nor  would  they  last 
long.  He  then  rules  lines  that  the  writing  may  l)e 
straight,"  etc.  (Penni/  Cydopsedia). 

Practically  when  the  skin  has  been  deprived  of  its 
hair  or  wool  it  is  placed  for  a  time  in  a  lime  pit, 
whence  it  is  taken  and  stretched  on  a  frame  and  drawn 
tight. 

The  workman  then  scrapes  the  ficsh  side  with  a  blunt 


72  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

iron  instrument,  and  wets  it  with  a  moistened  rag 
covered  with  powdered  chalk,  and  rubs  it  with  pumice 
stone.  This  operation  is  repeated  once  or  twice,  when 
the  hair  side  is  turned  and  scraped.  After  drying,  it 
is  again  scraped  with  a  finer  tool. 

The  parchments  of  the  time  of  the  Romans  must 
have  been  very  superior  to  those  of  the  early  middle 
ages,  and  these  again  to  the  parchments  of  the  eleventh 
and  tw^elfth  centuries.  From  that  time  to  the  six- 
teenth century  when  paper  began  to  be  employed, 
parchment  gradually  became  an  article  of  luxury  and 
imperfect  manufacture.  It  is  still  occasionally  used  on 
account  of  its  great  durability. 

In  examining  a  parchment  on  w^hich  a  supposed 
forgery  is  inscribed,  Mr.  Sittl  remarks  that  a  similarity 
between  the  two  sides  of  the  sheet  (which  can  be  de- 
termined by  the  equal  visibility  of  the  ink)  gives  very 
strong  reason  to  doubt  the  great  age  of  the  skin,  be- 
cause there  is  always  a  marked  difference  between  the 
hair  side  and  the  flesh  side  in  really  old  parchments. 
The  great  differences  of  inks  of  different  periods 
enables  the  fraudulent  character  of  corrections,  emen- 
dations, and  notes  to  be  discovered.  These  obser- 
vations, however,  apply  to  cases  where  it  is  desired  to 
judge  parchment  documents  belonging  to  centuries 
long  past. 

Erasures  in  parchments  produce  prominences  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  sheet.  The  ink  placed  upon  such 
erasures  has  a  peculiar  bluish  tinge.     It  happens  at 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  73 

times  that  a  whole  page  is  taken  out,  either  by  scratch- 
ing or  rubbing  with  pumice  (which  was  the  practice 
in  the  eleventh  century,  when  parchment  became  so 
valuable  that  it  was  common  to  keep  up  the  supply 
by  erasing  the  writing  on  old  parchments)  or  by 
washing. 

When  the  latter  method  was  used,  the  writing  as  in 
palimpsests  can  be  made  to  reappear  by  warming. 

The  parchment  can  be  either  laid  on  a  hot  plate  or 
pressed  with  a  hot  flat-iron  between  two  sheets  of 
paper  (Siftl). 

Furrows  traced  by  the  Pen-nibs. — TJnder  the  micro- 
scope the  furrows  traced  by  the  pen-nibs  are  usually 
easily  visible,  and  they  differ  with  every  variety  of 
pen  employed.  A  stiff",  fine-pointed  pen  makes  two 
comparatively  deep  lines  a  short  distance  apart,  which 
appear  blacker  in  the  writing  than  the  space  between 
them,  because  they  till  witli  ink,  which  afterwards 
dries,  and  produces  a  thicker  layer  of  black  sedi- 
ment than  those  elsewhere.  The  variations  of  press- 
ure upon  the  pen  can  be  easily  noticed  by  the  alter- 
nate widening  and  narrowing  of  the  band  between 
these  two  furrows.  The  tracing  appears  knotty-  and 
uneven,  when  made  by  an  untrained  hand,  while  it 
appears  uniformly  thin,  and  generally  tremulous  or 
in  zigzags  when  made  by  a  weak  but  trained  hand. 
A  soft  and  broad-nibbed  pen  exhibits  the  same  peculi- 
arities witli  the  difference  that  there  are  no  fine  lines, 
but  broad  and  broader  lines,  not  infrequently  inter- 


74  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

ruptecl  h\  blots,  and  obliterations  of  letters  by  the 
untrained  hand. 

The  depression  of  both  borders  of  a  pen-stroke  gives 
rise  to  the  appearance  of  convexity  in  the  line  which 
is  observed  under  the  microscope  and  in  photo-micro- 
graphs of  lines.  This  funnshes  another  means  of 
comparison  between  the  genuine  and  the  suspected 
writing ;  but,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  differences  in 
depth  of  the  furrows  is  very  slight,  even  with  notable 
differences  of  pressure,  it  is  not  a  guide  upon  which 
the  investigator  can  always  rely. 

Within  certain  limitations  it  is  an  important  object 
to  study,  and  may  give  indications  of  value  to  corrobo- 
rate or  refute  the  hypotheses  based  upon  other  lines  of 
study. 

Mackinnon  and  Stylographic  Pens. — As  was  re- 
marked before,  the  introduction  of  the  stylographic 
pen  has  changed  the  character  of  the  letters  when 
viewed  under  the  microscope,  and  in  the  future,  when 
instruments  executed  by  this  writing  tool  shall  come 
under  examination,  some  of  the  clues  which  were 
useful  in  the  metal-pen  era  will  disappear. 

The  stylus,  or  light  metal  wire,  which  acts  as  a  plug 
to  restrain  the  flow  of  ink  when  the  pen  is  not  in 
actual  use,  is  kept  down  either  by  a  verj-  small  weight, 
as  in  the  Mackinnon  pen,  or  by  a  fine  spring,  as  in  the 
ordinary  stylograph.  The  amount  of  pressure  neces- 
sary to  press  this  needle  back  is  so  slight  that  the 
weakest  hand  is  capable  of  accomplishing  it,  and  as 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  75 

there  is  practically  no  farrow  observable,  and  the  ink 
flows  over  all  sides  of  the  stylus  to  the  paper,  the 
effect  is  of  writing  with  a  very  fine  camel's-hair  pencil. 
Furrow,  convexity,  and  shading  in  the  line  disappear. 
Even  the  effects  of  tremor  are  with  difficulty  discern- 
ible, if  they  be  visible  at  all,  whether  heavy  or  light 
pressure  be  employed,  because  the  line  is  nearly  of 
uniform  width.  The  stopping  of  the  pen  on  the  paper 
does  not  produce  a  notably  heavier  deposit  of  ink, 
because  the  friction  of  the  ink  on  all  sides  of  the 
annular  space  in  the  nozzle  is  sufficient  to  stop  the 
flow  of  ink  until  the  pen  is  again  put  in  motion 
(provided  that  the  latter  be  in  good  order).  The  in- 
troduction of  the  stylograph  type  of  pen  deprives  the 
expert  in  handwriting  of  several  lines  of  investigation. 


CHAPTER    X. 

ALTERATIONS    OF    THE    CHARACTER    OF    THE    DOCUMENT. 

Difficulties. — It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  general 
rules  for  guidance  in  establishing  the  fact  of  such  alter- 
ations. There  is  usually  something  forced  or  unnatu- 
ral which  strikes  the  eye  in  looking  at  examples  of 
this  kind.  They  differ  from  the  bona  fide  alterations 
made  by  the  author,  with  no  attempt  at  concealment, 
but  they  diff'er  in  so  many  different  ways  that  it  is  not 
easy  to  bring  them  under  one  general  categorv. 


76  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

As  a  rule,  they  err  on  the  side  of  too  great  care  and 
legibility.  A  hand  which  has  never  made  a  clear  and 
distinct  figure  "  2"  or  letter  "  t"  or  word  "  five"  here 
appears  for  the  first  time,  under  suspicious  circum- 
stances, to  have  thrown  off*  ambiguity  and  to  have 
plainly  formed  the  letter  or  figure  out  of  one  of  differ- 
ent character. 

It  may  be  that  some  trick  of  writing  has  ordinarily 
deprived  the  character  of  clearness,  and  in  this  case 
the  peculiarity  appears,  but  so  subordinated  that  there 
can  be  no  doubt  as  to  what  was  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed to  the  reader. 

Such  reformations  from  bad  habits  in  writing  are 
always  very  suspicious  when  they  occur  at  critical 
points  and  times,  and  when  they  show  not  only  a 
desire  to  improve  a  bad  handwriting,  but  to  confer  a 
substantial  benefit  upon  some  one  which  has  nowhere 
else  been  alluded  to.  The  aim  of  the  forger  has  been 
to  make  the  altered  character  distinct,  in  order  that  no 
ambiguity  shall  rob  him  of  the  benefit  of  the  change, 
and  this  labored  effort  to  be  distinct  may  lead  to  his 
detection.  In  cases  where  it  is  the  sense  of  the  sen- 
tence which  is  altered  by  the  addition  or  the  elimina- 
tion of  words,  the  case  falls  under  the  general  head  of 
complete  forgeries,  and  all  the  aids  to  investigation  of 
the  characters  of  handwriting,  the  constitution  of  inks, 
and  the  other  branches  of  the  subject  discussed  in 
this  book,  may  be  employed;  but  where  a  part  of  a 
letter  or  integer  is  grafted  on  another,  in   order  to 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  i  i 

change  its  value,  the  character  of  the  ink  in  the  two 
parts  deserves  especial  attention. 

Motive. — It  is  a  just  ground  of  suspicion  if  the 
document  under  investigation  attempt  to  accomplish 
by  a  few  added  words  more  than  such  a  document  is 
ordinarily  employed  to  accomplish :  as,  for  instance, 
when  a  cheque,  of  which  the  mission  is  usually  to 
enable  the  drawer  to  transfer  a  sum  of  money  to  a 
given  person,  by  the  added  words  "  in  full,"  etc.,  is 
transformed  when  cancelled  into  a  receipt,  which  pre- 
vents the  recipient  from  claiming  any  additional  sum, 
even  although  the  cheque  was  given  only  in  part 
payment. 

This  Avas  not  the  case  in  the  illustration  introduced 
elsewhere,  but  the  plaintiiFs  plea  was  rendered  plausi- 
ble jpnma /(2Cie  on  this  account. 

Other  alterations  that  may  be  expected  are  those  of 
"  raising"  a  cheque,  or  making  it  transfer  a  larger  sum 
to  the  payee  by  the  addition  of  ciphers,  or  integers,  or 
tiie  alteration  of  one  digit  to  another. 

Not  all  the  digits  are  equally  easy  to  change  into 
each  other,  but  a  1  is  frequently  changed  to  a  4;  or  a 
3  or  6  to  an  8 ;  or  a  7  to  a  9,  etc. 

When  there  are  traces  of  ditferent  inks  on  the  same 
figure,  and  the  mark  of  one  kind  makes  a  nuniljer 
inferior  to  that  produced  by  both  together,  the  proba- 
bility of  a  forgery  is  much  iK-ightened. 

"Writing  over  a  Stroke  or  Dash,  or  where  One  has 
been   removed. — Tlie    methods    <riven    al)ove    for   ar- 


78  STUDY    OF    HANDAVRITING 

riving  at  a  conclusion  as  to  which  of  two  crossed  lines 
is  above  and  which  below,  apply  to  the  first  of  these 
cases,  but  otliers  may  be  employed.  The  writer  has 
examined  a  case  where  the  forger,  knowing  that  it  was 
almost  impossible  to  escape  detection  by  erasing  a  line 
and  afterwards  writino;  over  the  erasure,  determined  to 
write  boldly  over  a  filling-out  line,  or  flourish  line  (i.e., 
the  line  drawn  from  the  end  of  the  last  letter  in  a  par- 
agraph diagonally  across  a  blank  space,  to  prevent  any 
words  from  being  added).  But  when  the  words  in  the 
first  line  approached  the  diagonally  descending  flourish 
line,  he  showed  his  hesitation  in  performing  this  act 
by  the  alteration  of  the  direction  of  his  line  of  writing 
upward.  The  line  of  writing  changed  its  direction 
sensibly  upward  to  avoid  the  stroke,  and  as  it  was 
the  only  line  of  writing  which  did  this,  and  its  di- 
rection was  parallel  to  the  flourish  line  before  the 
latter's  erasure,  it  left  convincing  proof  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  flourish  line  before  this  line  of  writing 
was  penned.  Where  the  writing  finally  did  cro^ 
the  flourish  line,  an  examination  in  oblique  light  of 
the  crossing,  by  a  lens  magnifying  three  or  four  diam- 
eters, showed  conclusively  which  of  the  two  was  su- 
perposed. The  intention  of  this  forger  was  to  write 
the  line  first,  and  subsequently  to  erase  both  line 
and  letters,  in  order  to  give  the  impression  that  they 
were  made  contemporaneously.  In  this  he  failed, 
because  the  ink  of  the'  writing  was  shown  to  be 
above  the  ink  of  the  line  by  oblique  examination,  and 


AND   DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  79 

a  chemical  test  showed  that  the  two  inks  were  ditterent 
in  constitution.  In  this  case,  also,  the  erasing  was 
purposely  done  for  a  considerable  space  above  and 
below  the  line,  as  if  to  force  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  letters  of  the  writing  had  suffered  in  the  same  way 
as  the  line  itself,  and  that  both  were  there  before  the 
erasing  process  began. 

Writing-  over  an  Erasure. — If  any  one  will  try  the 
experiment  of  erasing  an  ink-mark  on  ordinary  writ- 
ing-paper, and  then  writing  over  the  erasure,  he  will 
notice  a  striking  difference  between  the  letters  on  the 
unaltered  and  on  the  altered  surface.  The  latter  are 
broader,  and  in  most  cases,  to  the  unaided  eye,  darker 
in  color,  while  the  erased  spot,  if  not  further  treated 
to  some  substitute  for  sizing,  may  be  noticed  either 
when  the  paper  is  held  between  a  light  and  the  eye, 
or  when  viewed  obliquely  at  a  certain  angle,  or  in  both 
cases. 

Very  frequently  it  happens  that  so  much  of  the  size 
and  the  superficial  layer  of  fibres  must  be  removed 
that  the  mark  of  the  ink  can  be  distinctly  seen  on  the 
reverse  side  of  the  paper,  and  the  lines  have  a  distinct 
border  which  makes  them  l)roader  than  in  the  same 
writing  under  normal  conditions.  If  a  shar[t  pen  be 
used  there  is  great  likelihood  that  a  hole  will  be  made 
in  the  paper,  or  a  sputter  thrown  over  tlie  parts  ad- 
jacent to  the  erasure. 

The  latter  eff'ect  is  produced  by  the  entanglement  of 
the  |)oint  of  the  pen  among  the  disturbed  fil)res  of  the 


80  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

paper  and  its  sudden  release  when  sufficient  force  is 
used  to  carry  it  along  in  the  direction  of  the  writing. 

It  is  often  of  importance  to  know,  in  case  of  a  blot, 
whether  the  erasure  it  may  partially  mark  w^ere  there 
before  the  blot,  or  whether  it  were  made  with  the 
object  of  removing  the  latter. 

Inasmuch  as  an  attempt  to  correct  such  a  disfigure- 
ment would  in  all  probability  not  be  made  until  the 
ink  had  dried,  an  inspection  of  the  reverse  side  of  the 
paper  will  usually  furnish  satisfactory  e"sddence  on  the 
point.  If  the  color  of  the  ink  be  not  more  distinct 
on  the  under  side  of  the  paper  than  the  color  of  other 
writing  where  there  was  no  erasure,  it  is  probable  that 
the  erasure  was  subsequent  to  the  blot. 

If  the  reverse  be  the  case,  the  opposite  conclusion 
may  be  drawn.  Blots  are  sometimes  used  by  ignorant 
persons  to  conceal  the  improper  manipulation  of  the 
paper,  but  they  are  not  adapted  to  aid  this  kind  of 
fraud,  and  least  of  all  to  conceal  erasures. 

Additions  and  Interlineations. — The  decision  as  to 
whether  they  have  been  made  legitimately  and  before 
a  paper  was  executed,  or  subsequently  to  its  execution, 
and  with  fraudulent  intent,  must  be  arrived  at  by  a 
comparison  of  the  handwriting  in  which  the  words 
appear,  the  ink  with  which  they  were  written,  and  the 
local  features  of  each  special  case  which  usually  are 
not  wanting. 

As  an  instance  of  these  local  accidents  which  always 
assist  so  largely  in  getting   at   the  truth,  the  follo\^■- 


PLATE    TIT. 


* 


•  %;S;v 


AND   DETECTIOX   OF   FORGERY.  81 

iiig  case  in  the  writer's  experience  may  ])e  cited.  The 
paper,  of  which  the  important  part  is  represented 
below,  was  claimed  by  the  plaintift'  to  have  been  altered 
by  the  insertion  of  the  words  "  in  foil  to  Dayt,"  after 
the  cheque  had  been  paid,  cancelled  by  the  bank,  and 
returned  to  the  payer.  The  plaintitt"  in  the  case  did 
not  deny  that  the  sum  was  paid  but  claimed  an  ad- 
ditional sum  on  the  transaction  still  due,  and  charged 
forgery  against  the  drawer  of  the  cheque. 

It  happened  that  part  of  a  letter  of  one  of  these 
words  crossed  two  punctures  made  ov^er  the  figures 
giving  the  amount  of  the  cheque  to  prevent  subsequent 
alterations.  !N"evertheless,  no  ink  had  come  through  to 
the  under  side,  there  was  no  soiling  of  the  edge  of  the 
paper  by  ink,  and  no  way  to  account  for  the  absence 
of  these  appearances,  if  the  cheque  had  been  actually 
punctured  when  the  words  were  written.  Conse- 
quently, the  jury  very  justly  gave  a  verdict  for  the 
defendant,  and  saved  an  innocent  man  from  incarcer- 
ation as  a  criminal. 

In  Plate  III.,  Fig.  1,  part  of  the  face  of  the  cheque, 
including  the  figures  for  the  dollars,  and  the  punctures 
over  them  to  prevent  alteration,  is  represented. 

In  Fig.  2  the  reverse  of  the  top  of  the  "  f '  has  been 
lightly  traced  in  pencil  to  show  the  direction  of  its  de- 
scent over  the  punctured  part  on  the  opposite  side,  and 
two  arrows  have  been  drawn  in  pencil  to  within  minute 
distances  of  the  holes,  which  the  tail  of  the  "  f  (written 
in  ink)  on  the  face  or  opposite  side  traversed. 


82  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

Had  these  holes  been  there  when  the  "  f '  was 
written,  the  little  thread  of  ink  which  flowed  from 
the  pen  upon  the  paper  would  have  inevitably  pene- 
trated them,  and  appeared  on  the  opposite  side.  As 
not  a  trace  of  ink  appears  on  the  reverse  side,  it  is 
conclusive  evidence  that  the  holes  were  not  there 
when  "  in  foil  to  Dayt"  was  written ;  or  in  short  these 
words  were  written  before  the  cheque  was  entirely 
filled  up. 

While  the  expert  in  handwriting  should  confine 
himself  to  the  concrete  examinations  of  the  paper, 
ink,  seals,  etc.,  and  leave  to  the  counsel  the  task  of 
reasoning  on  the  purport  of  the  words  added,  and 
all  other  matters  not  allied  to  the  materials  left  as 
the  result  of  the  forgery,  yet  it  would  be  unreason- 
able to  neglect  altogether  these  means  of  corrobo- 
rating a  previously  formed  suspicion,  or  directing  a 
course  of  inquiry. 

That  expert  would  be  more  or  less  than  human  who 
could  shut  his  eyes  to  the  importance  of  the  fact  that 
certain  words  containing  evidence  in  the  manner  of 
their  formation  or  their  position  that  raised  doubts 
as  to  their  genuineness  by  their  import  gave  to  the 
person  w^ho  might  have  written  them  benefits  which 
he  would  not  have  derived  in  their  absence.  It  is  of 
course  improper  to  include  such  corroboration  in  his 
testimony  or  to  allow  himself  to  be  influenced  by  it  in 
his  purely  scientific  investigation,  but  he  need  not 
deny   himself   the    encouragement   which    is    derived 


AND  DETECTION  OF  FORGERY.  83 

from  the  discovery  of  an  apparent  motive  for  tfce  act, 
nor  neglect  the  clue  which  such  a  motive  might  suggest 
as  an  additional  line  of  research. 

Where  the  supposed  writer  of  the  document  was  a 
bad  or  careless  penman  the  interlineations  or  additions 
are  generally  distinguished  from  his  handwriting,  which 
they  simulate,  by  greater  clearness  and  precision,  as 
has  been  said  above;  for  when  a  man  will  risk  being 
sent  to  jail  for  forgery  it  is  not  likely  that  he  is 
willing  to  lose  any  prospective  advantage  which  his 
felony  will  bring  him  by  lack  of  distinctness  in  the 
characters  by  means  of  which  it  is  perpetrated. 

Obvious  Mistakes. — Considering  the  number  of 
such  fraudulent  additions  or  interlineations  with  which 
the  writer  has  become  professionally  acquainted,  the 
number  of  mistakes  in  spelling  or  in  following  the 
method  employed  by  the  supposed  writer  in  forming 
the  same  words  is  surprisingly  great.  Several  in- 
stances are  recalled  where  the  name  of  the  supposed 
writer  was  not  only  misspelled  but  spelled  in  two  dif- 
ferent ways  in  the  same  instrument.  It  occasionally 
seems  as  if  the  forger's  attention  is  so  earnestly 
directed  to  overcoming  the  difficult  parts  of  his  task 
that  he  neglects  the  simpler  and  more  obvious  parts. 


84  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER    XI. 

STRUCTURE    OF    TAPES. 

Use  of  Tapes. — Where  a  document  of  record  con- 
sists of  several  sheets  it  is  usual  to  attach  them  to- 
gether by  a  tape  and  seal  with  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing the  separate  sheets  from  being  detached  without 
showing  the  fact  by  the  disarrangement  of  these.  It 
has  happened  that  the  forgers  have  not  been  able  to  re- 
place both  ends  of  the  original  tape,  but  have  procured 
a  new  piece  for  one  of  them.  This  is  a  hazardous 
proceeding,  because  it  is  very  diiScult,  if  not  impossi- 
ble, to  give  the  same  appearance  to  a  piece  of  tape  by 
artificial  means  which  another  piece  has  attained  in  a 
natural  way  by  age  and  ordinary  handling. 

Even  if  the  colors  can  be  made  to  agree  very 
well  to  the  eye,  the  structure  of  an  old  tape  is  sensibly 
different  from  a  new  one.  "With  continuous  hand- 
ling or  rubbing  against  other  papers,  with  the  minute 
changes  which  are  l)rought  about  by  the  absorption  of 
moisture  and  subsequent  drying,  an  old  tape  shows  a 
looseness  in  its  woven  texture  very  different  from  the 
compact  web  of  a  piece  of  tape  fresh  from  its  roll. 
(See  photograph  of  tape  on  the  Whitaker  will,  Plate 
Y.)  The  interstices  between  transverse  and  longi- 
tudinal strands  of  a  tape  in  use  become  enlarged  and 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  85 

irregular,  and  it  is  not  infrequent  to  find  these  latter 
arranged  in  threes  or  fours  together,  with  larger  open 
spaces  on  each  side  of  the  group.  Xo  ordinary  hand- 
ling can  produce  this  effect  Avith  a  new  tape.  It 
seems  to  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  fibre  which 
forms  it,  the  numl)er  of  changes  in  the  hygroscopic 
condition  of  the  air  of  the  locality  where  it  is  kept, 
and  probably  on  other  causes  imperfectly  investigated. 

Kinds  of  Tape. — The  tapes  in  common  use  are 
made  of  linen  or  silk  (the  latter  being  called  "  taste"). 
They  are  usually  red. 

The  differences  between  these  are  apparent  under 
the  microscope,  where  the  fibres  of  these  substances 
can  be  easily  distinguislied  from  one  another.' 

Uniformity  of  the  Fibre. — It  is  important  in  cases 
where  the  tape  may  have  been  tampered  with  to  as- 
certain what  the  fibre  is.  It  is  not  likely  that  a  forger 
will  piece  out  a  missing  length  of  linen  tape  with 
one  of  silk,  but  all  parts  of  this  material  used  on  a 
document  should  be  scrutinized  to  ascertain  whether 
the  material  be  uniform  or  nearly  so. 

If  the  material  is  practically  the  same  there  may  be 
differences  in  its  condition  due  to  usage. 

A  part  may  show  the  numerous  and  irregular  inter- 
spaces, while  another  part  shows  the  compact  structure 
of  a  newer  tape. 

'  For  the  differences  between  these  two  fibres,  see  the  plates  in 
Cross  and  Beyan's  work  on  the  manufacture  of  paper,  or  any  work 
on  the  textile  manufactures. 


86  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

Small  particles  of  sealing-wax  or  stains  of  ink  may 
suggest  tampering,  or  the  holes  through  which  it 
passes  in  the  paper  may  have  been  enlarged  or  torn  by 
its  passage  and  repassage. 

Plate  III.,  Fig,  3,  represents  linen  tape  unstretched, 
Fig.  4  the  same  stretched ;  Fig.  5  represents  silk  "  taste" 
unstretched,  and  Fig.  6  stretched. 

Sealing-wax. — The  three  kinds  of  sealing-wax  in 
use  in  this  country  are  the  American  express  wax, 
usually  brown,  and  inferior  in  quality  to  the  other  two, 
and  two  grades  of  red  sealing-wax. 

If  the  sealing  have  been  done  skilfully,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  remove  and  replace  the  sealing-wax  with- 
out allowing  that  fact  to  become  apparent  on  close  in- 
spection. Remelting  is  liable  to  darken  the  color  of 
the  wax,  and  will  certainly  round  the  edges  left  by  the 
impress  of  the  hard  seal.  If  the  wax  take  fire,  it  is 
partially  carbonized  on  top,  and  the  black  particles 
mix  with  those  of  the  part  which  has  l)een  softened, 
and  testify  to  the  tampering. 

The  stamp  of  a  seal  on  a  sufficient  body  of  wax  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  a  depressed  cup,  at  the  bottom 
of  which  the  design  of  the  die  is  reproduced  in  relief. 
The  sides  of  the  depression  are  precipitate  towards 
the  centre,  and  slope  gradually  from  all  points  of  the 
exterior  towards  the  level  of  the  paper.^ 

1  For  information  in  regard  to  the  manufacture  and  characteristics 
of  sealing-waxes,  see  Die  Fabrikation  der  Siegel-  und  Flaschenlacke  ; 
von  Louis  Edgar  Andes,  Wien,  Pest,  Leipzig,  1885. 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  87 

Rounding  of  Edges  by  remelting. — When  the  seal- 
ing-wax is  softened  or  remelted,  the  sharp  edges  of 
the  imprint  are  always  rounded,  and  if  the  softening 
have  been  over  a  large  part  of  the  wax,  the  design  is 
distorted  or  partially  effaced,  and  this  is  true  even  if  a 
a  hot  blade  have  passed  between  the  paper  and  the 
lower  layer  of  the  wax;  the  heat  from  below  serving 
to  round  off  and  destroy  the  sharpness  of  the  design. 

If,  as  often  happens,  the  seal  have  been  broken,  the 
very  existence  of  the  fracture  suggests  improper  treat- 
ment. When  the  wax  has  been  detached  from  the 
tape  and  remelted  to  re-attach  it,  a  partial  Ini ruing  of 
the  tape  may  occur,  and  will  furnish  additional  evi- 
dence of  tampering;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
underlying  paper. 

Skin-marks  on  the  Wax. — It  might  occui-  (though 
the  chance  is  remote)  that  a  thumb  or  finger  had  been 
used  to  press  down  the  soft  wax  more  firmly  on  the 
paper.  If  an  imprint  of  the  skin  should  result,  it 
might  lead  not  only  to  proof  of  tampering,  but 
the  conviction  of  the  forger  through  the  means  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  Francis  Galton  in  his  book  on  finger- 
prints.' The  evidence  adduced  by  Galton  and  Sir 
William  Herschel,  F.RS.,  etc.,  seems  to  be  that  no 
two  prints  of  the  cuticle  which  covers  the  thuml)s  or 
fingers  of  different  individuals  are  ever  the  same,  and 

'  Finger-Prints,  by  Francis  Galton.  London:  Macniillan  &  Co., 
and  New  York,  1892.  Also,  Decipherment  of  Blurred  Finger-Prints, 
idem,  1893. 


88  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

also  that  the  "  whorls"  and  curves  and  figures  made  by 
the  little  ridges  of  epidermis  remain  curiously  constant 
in  the  same  individual  from  early  youth  to  advanced 
age.  The  method  has  been  used  with  success  to 
identify  American  Indians,  Chinese,  East  Indians,  and 
others  not  easily  distinguishable  from  their  country- 
men, and  in  the  lucky  contingency  (said  to  have  once 
occurred  in  a  criminal  prosecution  in  this  country) 
that  a  forger  identifies  himself  by  leaving  a  finger- 
print on  the  wax,  the  expert  should  be  prepared  to 
profit  by  it  in  the  interest^  of  justice. 


CHAPTER     XII. 

MICROSCOPE    STUDY    OF    THE    INK. 

Characteristics  of  Inks. — In  the  exhaustive  essay 
upon  nutgall  iron  inks  by  Schluttig  and  Neumann, 
in    the    interest   of    the    ink-manufacturing    firm    of 

^  A  committee  appointed  by  the  British  Home  Secretary,  Mr. 
Asquith,  to  inquire  into  the  best  means  for  identifying  criminals,  has 
reported  in  favor  of  supplementing  the  method  heretofore  employed 
in  England  for  the  identification  of  criminals  by  others,  taken  partly 
from  M.  Bertillon's  system  and  partly  from  that  of  Mr.  Galton,  of 
recording  the  impressions  of  finger-tips.  The  committee  accepted  as 
trustworthy  Mr.  Gallon's  conclusion  that  the  chance  of  two  finger- 
prints being  identical  is  less  than  one  in  sixty-four  thousand  millions. 
— Daily  Press  Report,  April  10,  1894. 


AND    DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  89 

August  Leonhai'di,  in  Dresden,  the  following  char- 
acteristics are  laid  down  as  necessary  for  a  perfect 
ink: 

1.  A  clear,  filterable  solution,  which  shows  no  par- 
ticles in  suspension. 

2.  It  must  be  limpid  (easily  flowing)  and  remain  so 
for  some  time, — that  is  to  say,  it  must  flow  easily  from 
the  pen,  and  neither  stick  fast  to, "nor  fall  from  it,  nor 
broaden  on  touching  the  paper. 

3.  It  must  possess  durability  in  gloss  {i.e.^  in  the 
ink-stand),  and  {a)  must  produce  only  a  slight  pre- 
cipitate after  a  considerable  time,  and  (6)  must  exhibit 
no  crust  on  the  surface  or  sides  and  no  flakes. 

4.  It  must  produce  on  the  pen  only  a  slight  lacquer- 
like smooth  deposit,  but  not  a  loose  crust. 

5.  It  must  possess  no  pronounced  odor. 

6.  It  must  not  be  too  acid,  nor  penetrate  good 
paper. 

7.  It  must  have  an  intense  color  which  neither  in 
the  fluid  nor  on  the  paper  becomes  lighter  or  is  en- 
tirely bleached. 

(In  the  latter  case  the  bleaching  is  estimated  from 
the  time  of  the  attainment  of  perfect  dryness  of  the 
writing,  because  wet  lines  always  appear  darker  than 
dry.) 

8.  It  must  produce  characters  which,  after  drying, 
are  not  sticky. 

All  good  inks  should  possess  these  characters, 
whether  they  are  copying-inks    or    writing-inks.     In 


90  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

the  foregoing  cases  only  the  writing-inks  and  the 
combined  writing-  and  copying-inks  are  considered, 
which  latter,  without  regard  to  their  copying  proper- 
ties, must  have  all  the  qualities  of  a  good  ink.  The 
pure  copying-inks  which  make  more  than  two  copies 
are  not  considered  in  the  following. 

Further,  it  is  to  be  required  of  the  writing-inks 
that — 

9.  They  must  produce  characters  which,  after  dry- 
ing for  eight  days,  cannot  be  so  far  removed  by 
several  days'  treatment  with  water  or  alcohol  that 
they  will  become  illegible.  With  regard  to  the  perma- 
nence of  their  written  characters  on  exposure  to  light 
and  air  they  are  divided  into  (a)  unalterable,  or  Class 
I.,  and  (6)  alterable,  or  Class  11. 

The  unalterable  are  the  so-called  nutgall  iron  inks 
of  documentary  value  :  they  must  possess 

10.  A  definite  minimum  content  of  iron,  and 

11.  A  sufficient  content  of  nutgalls, — i.e.,  they  must 
produce  written  characters  which  in  eight  daj-s  turn 
into  deep  black,  and  then  even  after  several  days' 
treatment  with  water  and  alcohol  still  maintain  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  blackness. 

After  stating  that  the  value  for  use  in  legal  docu- 
ments of  nutgall  iron  ink  is  established  beyond  perad- 
venture,  Schluttig  and  ITeumann  proceed  to  say  that, 
although  nutgall  iron  inks  are  the  only  inks  whose 
permanency  has  been  guaranteed  by  centuries  of  ex- 
posure, still  not  all  documents  written  with  so-called 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  91 

nut2;all  iron    inks  have   remained  legible  for   several 
centuries. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  characters  in  other  docu- 
ments have  been  perfectly  preserved  up  to  the  present 
day.  Although  the  character  of  the  paper  has  a  cer- 
tain influence  upon  the  result,  yet  the  conclusion  is 
forced  that  only  such  nutgall  iron  inks  furnish  the 
guarantee  of  lasting  for  centuries  of  which  the  written 
characters  are  really  black  after  drying,  and  that  the 
same  amount  of  confldence  cannot  be  given  to  other 
nutgall  iron  inks  of  which  the  characters  are  gray  or 
brown. 

These  chemists  regard  the  introduction  of  gum  or 
other  substance  to  render  the  ink  viscous  as  harmful 
and  antiquated. 

The  above  requirements  of  a  good  ink  are  seldom 
fulfilled,  and  the  student  of  the  writing-fluids  employed 
in  documents  l)oth  old  and  recent  would  be  very  far 
misled  if  he  were  to  suppose  the  objects  of  his  exam- 
ination were  the  dried  remains  of  writing-fluids  of 
such  high  character. 

In  another  place  the  chemical  constitution  of  inks 
will  be  considered.  Here  it  is  necessary  to  discuss  the 
physical  appearance  of  inks  under  magnification  from 
a  few  diameters  up  to  100. 

Appearance  under  the  Microscope. — In  spite  of 
the  theoretical  speculations  as  to  Avliat  a.  perfect  ink 
should  be,  it  usually  consists  of  two  parts,  first,  a 
staining  fluid,  and,  secondly,  small  }»articlos  which  are 


92  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

distributed  with  more  or  less  regularity  over  the 
stained  surface. 

This  can  be  seen  by  examining  a  stroke  made  with 
a  very  black  ink  on  a  glass  slide  and  magniiied  about 
thirty-five  diameters.  Here  it  will  be  observed  there 
is  a  film  which  absorbs  light  through  which  are  scat- 
tered dark  opaque  objects  which  add  to  the  intensity 
of  its  black.     (Plate  III.,  Fig.   7.) 

Part  of  these  black  spots  may  be  due  to  the  dust 
which  has  become  mingled  with  the  ink  by  reason 
of  its  exposure  to  the  air,  but  most  of  the  particles 
are  derived  from  precipitation  within  the  ink  itself. 
The  existence  of  these  two  sources  of  light  absorption, 
the  colored  fluid  and  the  dark  particles,  explains 
why  in  a  badly  sized  or  unsized  paper  the  ink-marks 
are  surrounded  by  a  paler  border. 

The  fibres  of  the  paper  act  as  a  filter  and  prevent 
the  solid  particles  from  penetrating,  while  they  allow 
the  carrying-fluid  of  the  ink  to  pass,  and  the  fluid 
spreads  by  capillary  action  beyond  the  line  traced  by 
the  pen ;  consequently  the  line  over  which  the  pen  has 
passed,  having  both  the  stain  and  the  free  solid  par- 
ticles deposited  upon  it,  is  darker  than  the  border 
Avhich  has  only  the  staining  fluid. 

It  is  not  so  easy  to  distinguish  the  number  of  the 
solid  suspended  particles  on  paper  as  on  glass,  because 
the  prominences  of  parts  of  the  paper  fibre  take 
more  ink  than  the  interstices,  and  are  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken for  the  solid  constituents  of  the  ink. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  93 

Under  the  microscope  a  pen-mark  on  paper  exhibits 
most  prominently  the  fibre  of  the  paper,  which  becomes 
plainly  visible  as  an  irregular  net-work,  in  striking 
contrast  with  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  paper  not  writ- 
ten on,  where  the  structure  is  not  apparent. 

In  all  the  figures  of  ink  lines  thus  far  shown  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  fibre  of  the  paper  becomes  prominent 
where  the  ink  has  stained  it,  and  is  not  noticeable  else- 
where. 

Color. — The  first  notes  to  be  taken  in  an  examina- 
tion of  an  ink  under  the  microscope  are  the  color ;  the 
presence  in  quantity  or  otherwise  of  the  opaque  par- 
ticles of  the  ink;  the  lustre  of  the  latter,  and  its 
change  (if  any)  in  various  conditions  of  illumination. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  judge  of  colors,  or  the  intensity  of  black 
by  the  naked  eye.  A  very  low  magnifying  power 
will  suffice  to  resolve  such  questions.  High  powers 
are  needed  in  but  few  lines  of  investigation  to  be 
pursued  in  the  subject  we  are  considering,  but  just 
here  a  power  of  sixty  or  seventy  diameters  is  useful 
in  examining  the  physical  constitution  of  inks. 

The  accidental  crumpling  of  a  document  does  not 
prevent  it  from  being  studied  under  a  power  of 
sixty  diameters,  while  the  minute  characters  of  the 
dried  writing-fiuid  appear  [»rominently,  and  will 
furnish  a  means  of  distinguishing  different  inks,  and 
even  sometimes  between  marks  of  ink  from  the  same 
bottle  at  difterent  epochs.     The  aniline  inks  or  those 


94  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

in  which  aniline  is  a  constituent  are  seldom  free  from 
a  characteristic  metallic  lustre,  unmistakable  when 
one  is  acquainted  with  it. 

Dichroism. — Many  inks  possess  distinct  dichroism, 
or  two  distinct  colors,  when  illuminated  and  viewed 
from  different  positions.  Wherever  this  occurs  the 
fact  should  be  carefullj  noted,  because  it  ofters  a 
means  of  discriminating  between  the  ink  possessing 
this  property  and  other  inks  with  more  or  less  the 
same  character  and  appearance. 

Superposition. — Where  two  lines  cross,  and  the 
upper  and  lower  cannot  be  distinguished  by  perpen- 
dicular vision  in  the  microscope,  their  order  of  super- 
position may  occasionally  be  judged  by  the  traces- of 
flow  from  the  sides  of  the  later  stroke  in  both  direc- 
tions along  the  edges  of  the  line  pre^^ously  written  but 
not  across  the  track  of  the  later  line;  and  sometimes  by 
two  black  lines  corresponding  to  the  paths  of  the  two 
nibs  tracing  the  upper  line.  These  appearances  are 
often  only  observable  through  the  microscope.  The 
cause  of  the  first  may  be  the  greater  capillary  attrac- 
tion of  the  particles  of  the  ink-film  first  deposited  than 
of  the  clean  paper  for  the  particles  of  the  fluid  ink; 
and  of  the  second  the  larger  quantities  of  ink  deposited 
in  the  furrows. 

Whether  or  not  these  be  the  principal  causes,  the 
fact  remains,  and  a  careful  scrutiny  of  the  edges  of 
crossed  lines  at  their  point  of  contact  will  often  re- 
veal which  was  the  last  to  be  traced. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  95 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  another  phenome- 
non sometimes  observable  under  the  microscope,  which 
may  lead  to  the  same  result,  is  the  staining  or  coloring 
of  the  loose  fibres  overlying  the  first  line,  or  of  those 
adjacent  to  it,  which  may  have  escaped  being  colored 
by  the  first  ink;  or  the  dulling  of  the  lustre  of  the 
inferior  ink  if  the  superior  be  less  lustrous;  or  the 
contrary  effect  in  the  opposite  case. 

It  may  happen  that  in  retouching  a  written  docu- 
ment for  purposes  of  fraud  the  writing-fluid  last  used 
is  indistinguishable  from  the  first  in  color  and  lustre, 
but  may  dififer  in  the  number  or  the  size  of  its  solid 
suspended  particles  or  in  some  other  characteristic. 

In  such  a  case  the  microscope  can  be  made  efi:ective 
in  determining  the  degree  of  uniformity  which  appears 
in  the  ink  lines.  However  skilfully  additions  to  the 
text  may  have  been  made  they  are  not  likely  to  elude 
this  test,  because  the  chances  are  very  great  against 
even  the  ink  from  a  given  bottle  remaining  constant 
for  any  considerable  time  in  all  the  characteristics  ob- 
servable in  the  microscope. 

Old  Ink. — The  ink  in  really  very  old  vmtings  shows 
a  yellowish  tinge  around  the  letters  which  it  is  hard 
to  imitate.  An  examination  usually  shows  either  no 
yellow  border,  or,  if  there  be  one,  it  lacks  that  gradual 
shading  into  the  color  of  the  letters,  which  is  one  of 
the  characteristics  of  really  old  writing  [Sittl). 

Changes  which  occur  in  the  Inkstand. — The  chance 
of  getting,  whether  out  of  the  same  inkstand  or  an- 


96  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

other,  at  two  widely-separated  intervals  of  time,  a 
writing-fluid  of  the  same  chemical  constitution  and 
physical  appearance  is  not  very  great.  Evaporation 
and  constant  contact  with  foreign  substances  may  alter 
the  character  of  an  ink  in  a  single  day,  so  that  it  will 
not  give  the  same  reactions  in  the  same  degree  or  in 
the  same  time.  It  is,  therefore,  most  important  to  test 
the  character  of  the  ink  on  tlje  original  stem  and  on 
the  additional  graft  where  changes  in  the  letters  have 
been  made.  The  manner  of  making  such  tests  will 
be  taken  up  subsequently. 

But  if  there  be  chemical  tests  which  will  accom- 
plish this  end,  a  close  inspection  by  means  of  the 
microscope  will  usually  divulge  physical  differences 
in  constitution,  color,  lustre,  etc.,  which  are  almost 
equally  important,  and  besides  this,  under  moderate 
magnifying  power,  the  junction  of  the  two  parts — the 
original  stem  and  the  graft — is  not  difficult  to  find, 
and  will  appear  unlike  the  ordinary  formation  of  the 
character  by  the  writer. 

Tests  by  Light  Effects. — It  has  been  incidentally 
mentioned  that  the  aniline  inks  have  the  character- 
istic of  a  metallic  lustre  in  the  dried  tracing  which 
they  leave.  There  are  other  inks,  however,  which 
consist  of  metallic  particles,  suspended  in  the  fluid  by 
the  addition  of  gums,  which  also  have  this  lustre,  but 
it  is  sufficient  here  to  recall  that  in  almost  all  cases 
presented  by  modern  and  ordinary  writing  a  metallic 
lustre  is  indicative  of  the  presence  of  aniline   inks. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  97 

Their  sediment  or  tracing  possesses  also  the  property 
of  iridescence  or  play  of  colors  which  the  purely 
metallic  inks  do  not  share.  As  a  general  rule  a  me- 
tallic lustre  and  iridescence  may  be  assumed  to  in- 
dicate the  presence  in  some  proportion  of  aniline 
colors  which  are  often  found  mixed  with  other  inks. 
A  very  small  percentage  of  aniline  mixed  with  an 
ink  will  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  that  ink  when 
used  by  itself. 

The  colors  exhibited  by  inks  when  seen  under  the 
microscope  difter  from  each  other  much  more  than  a 
superficial  examination  would  lead  one  to  suppose.  It 
has  been  before  stated  that  one  is  apt  to  fail  in  valuing 
the  colors  or  shades  of  inks  by  the  naked  eye  when 
one  is  in  considerable  mass,  and  the  other  is  repre- 
sented only  by  one  or  more  fine  strokes.  The  act  of 
magnif}'ing  these  objects  spreads  them  out  over  a 
broader  surface  and  makes  comparison  fairer.  One 
easily  distinguishes  in  writings  at  diti:erent  dates  well- 
defined  difterences  of  color,  even  when  the  same 
brand  of  ink  has  been  used  but  has  been  standing  in 
the  ink-stand  in  one  case  longer  than  the  other. 

In  order  to  properly  appreciate  this  diffevence,  a 
color  scale  should  be  used,  and  the  colors  of  the  two 
specimens  matched.  In  most  cases  no  exact  counter- 
part of  either  will  be  found,  but  the  nearest  matches 
will  be  seen  to  diifer  in  proportion  to  the  internal 
chemical  and  physical  changes  which  liave  taken 
place,  mainly  through  oxidation  and  evaporation. 

7 


98  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

But  the  changes  of  state  which  occur  in  the  ink- 
stand are  not  the  only  changes  which  are  of  vakie  in 
appreciating  a  difference  of  inks  or  a  difference  of 
dates  in  employing  the  same  ink.  In  all  inks  wliich 
contain  gums  in  solution  the  effect  of  evaporation  in 
the  ink-stand  is  to  concentrate  this  ingredient  in  what 
is  left.  The  concentration  of  the  coloring  matter  may 
be  too  trifling  to  notice  when  the  ink  is  first  laid  upon 
the  paper,  but  that  which  contains  the  most  gum  will 
be  subjected  to  less  subsequent  change  in  a  given 
period,  because  the  subsequent  change  is  due  to  the 
oxidation  of  the  air,  as  well  as  to  the  actinic  action 
of  the  light,  and  the  former  is  hindered  by  the  cover- 
ing of  gum.  After  three  or  four  months  from  the 
date  of  the  writing  the  ink  with  least  gum  will  begin 
to  show  a  slight  difference  from  that  which  has  more, 
and  in  three  or  four  years  the  distinction  may  be  great 
enough  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  entirely  different 
inks  have  been  employed. 

By  Camera  Lucida. — Where  two  writings  are  to  be 
examined  which  profess  to  have  been  made  at  the 
same  time  and  with  the  same  inks,  it  is  well  to  ex- 
amine them  in  succession  under  the  microscope  with  a 
power  of  twenty  to  fifty  diameters,  introducing  the 
camera  lucida  and  passing  a  color  scale  under  the 
divided  image  until  a  near  approximation  to  the  color 
of  the  ink  be  found  and  noted  for  each. 

In  this  first  experiment  care  should  be  taken  to  lay 
the  writings  on  some  opaque  object,  such  as  a  sheet  of 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  99 

metal,  or  a  piece  of  thick  carcl1)oard,  in  order  to  ex- 
clude all  transmitted  light. 

The  writer  has  found  it  better  not  to  employ  the 
parabolic  reflector  or  the  l)ull's-eye  for  illumination, 
but  to  turn  the  stage  of  the  microscope  away  from  the 
window,  or  other  source  of  light,  in  order  to  get  rays 
as  perpendicular  as  possible  to  the  surface  of  the 
object. 

By  Reflected  and  Transmitted  Light. — When  this 
has  been  done  a  similar  experiment  should  be  tried 
with  the  paper  (if  not  too  thick)  by  transmitted  light. 

The  colors  by  reflected  and  transmitted  light  will 
not  agree,  and  in  general  the  amount  of  divergence 
between  two  inks  will  be  different  in  the  two  cases ; 
but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  judge  too  hastily  of 
the  results  by  transmitted  light,  inasmuch  as  there  is 
an  unknown  quantity  represented  by  dirt,  sizing,  and 
natural  variation  in  the  thickness  of  the  paper  fibres, 
which  in  the  case  of  transmitted  light  must  be  taken 
into  account. 

Even  with  these  drawbacks,  the  plan  is  one  which 
will  throw  light  upon  the  physical  properties  of  the 
inks  though  without  ascertaining  on  what  those 
properties  depend. 

Oblique  Illumination. — After  the  two  examinations 
with  light,  as  nearly  as  possible  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  paper,  in  the  one  case  reflected  and  in 
the  other  transmitted,  it  will  be  well  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periment with  oblique  illumination,  using  the  bull's- 


100  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

eye  illuminator  for  reflected  light,  the  document  being 
laid  on  an  opaque  stage ;  and  the  concave  mirror  under 
the  stage  as  the  source  of  the  light  for  transmission. 

In  many  inks  the  side-illumination  produces  a 
striking  difference  from  the  color  by  perpendicular 
illumination,  and  inks  which  exhibit  this  peculiarity 
have  been  called  dichroic.  The  degree  to  which  this 
difference  appears  depends  to  a  certain  extent  upon 
the  character  of  the  surface  of  the  paper.  "Where  the 
latter  is  rough  and  uneven,  it  allows  more  transmis- 
sion of  light  from  the  lateral  illuminant  through  the 
films  spread  upon  the  little  prominences,  and  the 
change  in  lustre  and  color  becomes  more  apparent 
than  where  the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth.  Still  no 
surface  of  writing-paper  is  entirely  smooth  under  a 
magnification  of  thirty  or  forty  diameters,  and  appear- 
ances entirely  unsuspected  by  the  naked  eye  become 
manifest  under  these  circumstances. 

Colored  Prisms. — Another  plan  which  has  yielded 
the  writer  valuable  results  is  that  of  examining  inks 
both  with  and  without  the  microscope  through  glasses 
of  various  colors.  If,  for  example,  both  inks  ex- 
hibit a  blue  tinge,  it  is  because  the  red  and  yellow 
rays  have  been  more  absorbed  than  the  blue.  If  red, 
blue,  or  yellow  glasses  of  difterent  thicknesses  be 
placed  over  such  inks, — or,  better  still,  acute  glass 
prisms  of  these  colors  (graduated  to  millimeters  on 
the  lower  edges)  be  slid  over  the  characters  succes- 
sively to  the  point  of  extinction  of  their  color, — i.e.;. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY. 


101 


till  the  written  line  becomes  quite  black, — and  the 
units  of  graduation  be  read  off,  the  relative  differ- 
ence in  the  intensity  of  the  colors  of  the  two  inks 
may  be  quantitatively  ascertained.     For  further  con- 


FlG.  11. 


Yellow. 


Blue. 


Red. 


firmation  of  this  experiment  with  a  blue  ink  a  prism 
of  yellow  glass  may  be  used  with  advantage  after  the 
red  prism.  In  case  the  ink  have  a  yellowish  or  yel- 
lowish-brown color,  blue  and  red  glasses  or  prisms 
may  be  employed ;  and  for  red  inks,  yellow  and  blue 
glasses  or  prisms.  The  object  of  all  such  experiments 
is  manifestly  to  establish  differences  between  differ- 
ent inks  in  their  power  of  absorption  for  different 
colors. 


102  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

The  prisms  devised  and  used  by  the  writer  for  these 
experiments  are  seven  to  eight  centimeters  in  length, 
♦  five  millimeters  thick  at  the  base,  and  0.5  millimeter 
thick  at  the  forward  edge.  The  part  of  a  line  on 
which  the  color-experiment  is  to  be  tried  is  brought 
to  the  middle  of  the  slide-holder,  if  the  microscope 
be  used,  or  to  any  thin  vertical  line  traced  on  the 
paper,  and  extending  slightly  below  the  lower  long 
edge  of  the  prism.  In  the  class  of  experiments  last 
mentioned  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  .lay  some 
particular  mark  of  a  ruler  graduated  to  millimeters 
beneath  the  part  to  be  examined,  and  at  such  a 
distance  below,  that  the  middle  of  the  sharp  edge 
of  the  prism  is  just  in  contact  with  the  object.  By 
pushing  the  prism  carefully  to  the  right  or  left,  and 
keeping  its  lower  edge  always  in  contact  with  the 
edge  of  the  ruler,  the  number  of  millimeters  of  move- 
ment necessary  to  extinguish  the  color  may  be  read 
off*,  either  on  the  ruler  from  the  assumed  zero  to  the 
point  where  the  thin  edge  comes  to  rest  at  the  mo- 
ment of  extinction,  or  on  the  glass  edge  of  the  prism 
itself,  if  the  latter  be  graduated. 

In  cases  where  the  color  of  the  ink  is  too  intense  to 
be  neutralized  even  by  five  millimeters  of  one  of  the 
colored  glasses,  another  prism,  of  a  color  correspond- 
ing as  little  as  possible  with  the  general  color  of  the 
ink,  may  be  superposed  on  the  first  (but  with  its 
thinner  edge  turned  towards  the  thicker  edge  of  the 
nether  prism)  and  slid  in  a  contrary  direction  until 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  103 

entire  extinction  of  the  color  is  attained.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  second  glass  at  this  juncture,  added  to  the 
five  millimeters  of  the  first,  will  indicate  what  thick- 
nesses of  these  two  glasses  are  requisite  to  overcome 
the  natural  color  of  the  ink. 

If  the  test  were  to  be  used  as  a  colorimetric  descrip- 
tion, rt  would  he  better  to  calculate  the  thickness  of 
the  prisms  at  each  degree  of  graduation,  and  by 
establishing  the  absorptive  power  of  each  prism  at 
each  of  these  divisions  to  obtain  the  actual  color 
value  of  the  ink ;  but  generally  the  number  of  milli- 
meters over  which  the  respective  prisms  must  be 
moved  in  order  to  attain  the  extinction  of  the  color 
will  serve  to  express  differences  or  similarity  between 
two  ink-marks,  and  this  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
object  in  view. 

Especially  is  this  the  case  in  an  examination  under- 
taken simply  to  establish  the  identity  or  non-identity 
of  two  ink  lines,  for  here  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  the 
absolute  color  value  by  reference  to  the  lines  on  the 
solar  spectrum,  but  only  the  relative  action  of  the 
same  absorbing  medium  on  two  inks.  In  such  cases  it 
matters  little  what  the  character  of  the  color  in  the 
glass  prism  may  be,  so  that  it  produces  a  different 
appearance  upon  the  two  ink-marks.  The  main  diffi- 
culty is  to  judge  the  point  at  which  the  colored  line 
becomes  actually  black.  When  this  point  is  reached, 
a  further  movement  of  the  prism  bringing  a  greater 
thickness  of  iAnss  over  the  line  will  not  increase  the 


104  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

blackness  of  the  latter,  but  will  merely  darken  the 
whole  field.^ 

Monochromatic  Light. — Finally,  it  is  well  to  illu- 
minate the  writing  by  monochromatic  light,  and  to 
examine  it  when  thus  illuminated  both  with  the  naked 
eye  and  with  an  ordinary  hand  magnifying-glass.  Not 
infrequently  a  better  general  idea  of  the  difference  of 
the  inks  employed  can  be  attained  hy  this  method 
than  by  examining  minute  portions  of  the  writing 
with  higher  powers. 

If  the  parts  of  the  writing,  of  doubtful  authenticity 
from  other  causes,  show  differences  from  those  parts, 
of  which  they  are  the  ostensible  continuations,  there  is 
good  reason  for  suspecting  them  to  be  fraudulent. 

The  experiment  just  referred  to  may  be  carried  out 
either  in  a  dark  room  by  means  of  colored  lights,  such 
as  the  sodium  flame  made  by  alcohol  and  salt,  and  the 
red  and  blue  lights  of  commerce,  or  in  a  camera  ob- 

1  It  hardly  needs  to  be  said  to  those  whose  admiration  for  the 
beautiful  and  successful  researches  of  my  friend  Mr.  Frederic  E. 
Ives  has  compelled  them  to  eschew  the  Brewsterian  theory  of  three 
primary  colors,  and  to  accept  that  of  Young,  Helmholtz,  and  Max- 
well, that  all  color  sensation  is  derived  from  nerve  fibrils  in  the  eye, 
which  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  sensitive  to  red,  blue,  and 
green  light  respectively  ;  that  there  is  no  objection  to  selecting  a  red, 
a  blue,  and  a  green  prism  for  neutralizing  the  residual  color  of  a  ray 
of  light  which  has  passed  through  the  ink  film  under  examination. 

The  only  point  necessarj'  to  observe  is  that  the  three  prisms  together 
should  be  capable  of  absorbing  all  the  escaping  colored  rays  and  that 
no  two  of  them  should  absorb  nearly  the  same  ravs. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  105 

scura  to  which  light  is  admitted  on  top  through  an 
aperture,  which  can  be  covered  by  red,  blue,  or  yel- 
low glass  plates;  or  even  by  laying  these  latter  over 
the  writing  placed  on  a  table  and  illuminated  by 
strong  skylight  or  artificial  light. 

The  corresponding  experiment  in  transmitted  light 
should  also  be  tried,  but  here,  owing  to  the  large  ab- 
sorption of  rays  by  the  paper,  the  document  should  be 
placed  on  the  colored  glass  and  the  latter  held  against 
a  window;  care  being  taken  to  prevent  illumination  of 
the  surface.  For  this  purpose  an  old  camera  or  other 
box  may  be  used,  of  which  the  two  ends  have  been 
removed.  The  paper  having  been  laid  with  the 
writing  uppermost  upon  the  colored  glass,  the  latter 
held  against  a  window-pane,  and  a  black  cloth  thrown 
over  the  head  of  the  observer  and  the  end  of  the  box, 
the  observations  just  detailed  may  be  carried  out. 

It  is  well  to  try  this  experiment  both  with  the  col- 
ored glass  above  and  below  the  writing. 

When  the  paper  is  thick  or  opaque,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  allow  direct  sunlight  to  pass  through  it. 


106  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

CHAPTER    XIIL 

QUANTITATIVE    METHODS. 

InsuflQciency  of  other  Methods. — Up  to  the  present, 
the  means  suggested  for  the  examination  of  docu- 
ments have  been  qualitative,  and  the  results  have  been 
attained  by  impressions  on  the  senses,  which  at  most 
have  been  comparative.  This  signature  has  been 
observed  to  be  more  freely  written  and  the  other  more 
labored ;  one  line  has  been  observed  to  be  over 
another ;  one  ink  bluer  or  blacker  than  another  and 
therefore  different  from  it. 

Such  methods  serve  a  most  useful  purpose,  and  if 
many  of  them  point  to  the  same  conclusion  they  may 
succeed  in  carrying  conviction  to  the  mind.  But  they 
have  the  disadvantage  that  if  they  point  in  different 
ways  the  judgment  is  bewildered,  and  they  necessarily 
exclude  from  consideration  all  cases  which  in  them- 
selves are  inconclusive.  If,  for  example,  it  be  desired 
to  compare  a  genuine  signature  with  the  signature  in 
dispute  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  differences 
in  their  characteristic  features,^  by  what  method  is  a 

1  An  act,  be  it  understood,  which  must  be  performed  in  the  privacy 
of  the  expert's  laboratory,  since,  according  to  the  interpretation  by 
certain  judges  of  Cliief-Justice  Woodward's  opinion  elsewhere  quoted, 
this  direct  comparison  in  court  constitutes  a  crime  against  the  jury, 
hardly  less  than  forgery  itself. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  107 

typical  signature  to  be  selected?  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  to  find  the  most  salient  feature  of  a 
man's  ordinary-  signature  very  much  modified,  if  not 
actually  suppressed,  in  individual  cases. 

If  a  search  be  made  through  a  series  of  undisputedly 
genuine  signatures,  it  will  be  found  that  one  character- 
istic fails  in  one  and  another  in  another. 

In  few  if  any  signatures  of  a  man  throughout  his  life 
are  all  the  elements  which  combine  to  constitute  its  character 
present  at  one  time.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
selection  is  an  arbitrary  proceeding. 

Is  there  any  way  which  can  be  adopted  to  overcome 
these  difficulties,  and  to  avoid  incompatible  indications 
while  making  use  of  all  the  material  which  can  be 
procured  ? 

It  was  the  writer's  conclusion  that  such  a  way 
could  be  found  which  induced  him  some  years  ago  to 
take  up  the  subject  of  handwriting  as  distinguished 
from  questions  of  the  materials  used  in  producing  it. 

The  introduction  of  the  experimental  method  into 
all  modern  investigation  (biology,  anthropometry,  psy- 
chology, etc.)  to  replace  disputatious  metaphysics, 
and  the  vague  indications  of  subjective  impressions, 
led  to  the  hope  that  in  this  difficult  subject  also  means 
would  be  found  to  introduce  the  application  of  meas- 
urement and  the  simpler  forms  of  the  mathematical 
expression  of  probabilities.  That  such  treatment  of 
the  subject  is  in  the  interest  of  justice  hardly  needs 
to  be  said.      As  long  as  the  steps  by  which  experts 


108  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

reach  their  conclusions  are  so  intricate  or  recondite 
that  only  the  results  may  be  stated  to  the  jury,  just  so 
long  will  the  character  of  expert  testimony  suffer  in 
the  opinion  of  the  public,  and  the  insulting  charge 
against  it  be  repeated  that  any  side  can  hire  an  expert 
to  support  its  case. 

Expert  Witnesses. — If  a  single  competent  expert 
could  be  selected  by  the  court  to  take  up  questions 
of  this  kind  and  lay  his  results  before  it,  the  pres- 
ent system  would  be  less  objectionable  than  it  is. 
Nevertheless,  this  solution  is  probably  not  the  best, 
because  no  man  is  capable  of  always  observing  and 
judging  correctly,  and  the  most  careful  man  may  be 
led  astray  by  elements  in  the  problem  before  him  of 
which  he  does  not  suspect  the  existence.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  to  be  fairer  and  less  open  to  objection 
if  a  plan  of  investigation  were  followed  which  can  be 
clearly  explained  to  those  who  are  to  decide  a  case 
and  the  resulting  data  left  in  their  hands  to  assist 
them  in  their  decision. 

In  such  a  manner  of  presentation,  if  any  important 
data  have  been  omitted,  or  if  the  premises  do  not 
warrant  the  conclusion,  the  errors  can  be  detected 
without  accusing  the  expert  of  lack  of  good  faith  or 
ignorance  of  his  subject.  The  fact  that  he  has  testi- 
fied in  hundreds  of  cases  and  in  every  court  in  the 
world  should  not  be  allowed  to  influence  the  jury 
asrainst  a  loo-ical  conclusion  drawn  from  uncontro- 
verted  facts. 


AXD   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  109 

Three  Postulates. — Three  postulates  to  the  pro- 
cedure about  to  be  described  may  be  laid  down. 

1.  Everything  capable  of  being  observed  is  capable 
of  being  measured,  provided  one  can  find  the  appro- 
priate instruments  and  methods. 

2.  Where  similar  objects  produced  under  variable 
conditions  are  to  be  observed,  the  method  employed 
must  be  capable  of  separating  that  which  is  essential 
from  that  which  is  accidental,  and  such  a  method  is 
the  determination  of  the  average  and  the  maximum 
variation  on  either  side  of  it. 

3.  The  determination  of  average  with  limits  of  vari- 
ation is  applicable  to  the  study  of  handwriting,  and 
especially  signatures,  because  handwriting  is  a  result 
of  the  action  of  a  motor  (the  will)  on  a  machine  (the 
bony  structure  of  the  arm  with  the  particular  nmscles 
and  nerves  attached  to  it)  attempting  to  reproduce  a 
pattern  which  habit  has  gradually  rendered  permanent 
in  the  mind.  The  variations  in  the  will-power  and 
accidental  external  hinderances,  such  as  a  bad  pen, 
rough  paper,  lack  of  space,  etc.,  may  modify  this 
ideal  in  one  or  more  parts,  but  usually  more  charac- 
teristics will  remain  than  are  removed  by  these  causes, 
so  that  in  being  added  to  those  in  a  given  number  of 
true  signatures  the  determination  of  the  elements  of 
any  one  signature  will  raise  the  average  of  the  sum 
of  all  nearer  to  conformity  with  the  ideal  of  the  writer, 
if  only  by  a  little. 

Numerical  Average. — Instead  of  selecting  a  single 


110  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

signature  to  serve  as  a  pattern,  and  comparing  the 
doubtful  signature  with  this,  it  remains  to  ascertain 
what  characteristics  of  the  signature  are  susceptible 
of  measurement.  By  measuring  these  in  all  signa- 
tures, and  taking  the  average  of  all  the  observations 
of  each  characteristic,  one  gets  a  numerical  expression 
of  each  characteristic  near  to  the  ideal  which  the 
writer  always  strove  without  success  to  attain,  and 
the  approximation  will  be  in  inverse  ratio  to  the 
variability  of  these  characteristics. 

This  method  is  adaptable  to  all  cases  where  the 
number  of  authentic  examples  is  great  enough  to  give 
weight  to  the  average  deduced  from  them,  and  may 
be  called  the  method  of  numerical  average. 

The  selection  of  the  characteristics  for  measurement 
will  be  taken  up  very  shortly. 

Graphic  Average. — Another  method,  which  is  based 
upon  the  same  general  principles,  differs  from  the  last 
only  in  the  manner  of  obtaining  the  averages. 

It  will  be  seen,  when  the  subject  of  selecting  the 
characteristics  of  a  handwriting  is  taken  up,  that  the 
number  of  such  characteristics  is  almost  infinite,  and 
the  best  that  can  be  done  by  the  system  of  measure- 
ment and  tabulation  is  to  select  a  few  of  the  most 
striking  to  deal  with. 

But  by  the  application  of  the  beautiful  method  first 
introduced  to  the  notice  of  the  reading  public  by  Fran- 
cis Galton,  the  averages  are  not  those  of  a  few  selected 
characteristics,  but  of  all  made  automatically  and  at 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  Ill 

once  by  composite  photography.  By  this  method  all 
agreements  and  differences  are  noted  together,  and 
it  may  be  called  the  method  of  graphic  average. 

Composite  Photography. — If  it  be  conceded  that  the 
result  of  an  effort  made  by  a  living  being  to  repeat  an 
action  it  has  become  habituated  to  make  is  within 
certain  limits  uniform,  then  the  way  is  clear  to  study 
these  results,  and  to  obtain  from  their  average  the 
ideal  which  each  of  these  actions  or  series  of  actions 
has  tended,  probabl}'  without  complete  success,  to 
produce. 

If  we  could  divide  such  an  ideal  into  three  com- 
ponent parts,  A,  B,  and  C,  and  if  we  found  that  out 
of  thirty  efforts  A  has  remained  constant  in  twenty- 
five,  B  in  twenty-five,  and  C  in  twenty-five ;  while  A, 
B,  and  C  have  only  appeared  together  in  fifteen  cases 
out  of  the  thirty,  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that 
these  fifteen  cases,  though  they  represent  but  half  of 
the  whole  number  of  results,  constitute  in  reality  the 
ideal  which  the  agent  has  always  intended  to  produce. 

Measurements. — It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference 
what  points  be  taken  in  measuring,  but  there  are 
rarely  any  entirely  devoid  of  significance,  and  the 
more  measurements  which  are  made,  the  greater 
will  be  the  accuracy  of  the  description,  and  the 
larger  the  number  of  average  agreements  or  dis- 
agreements with  the  signature  in  dispute,  depending 
upon  whether  the  same  hand  did  or  did  not  write 
the  undisputed  and  the  suspected  series. 


112  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

A  little  experience  in  this  work  will  suggest  the 
lengths,  breadths,  distances,  spaces,  heights,  and 
angles  which  are  most  important  or  likely  to  be 
so.  Previous  experience  in  the  office-work  of  topo- 
graphical surveying  or  mechanical  or  architectural 
drawing,  will  be  a  valuable  aid  to  the  student  of 
handwriting,  for  only  such  experience  will  enable 
him  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  dealing  with  coarse 
and  more  or  less  irregular  ink  lines,  and  determining 
their  beginnings  and  endings,  the  point  of  their 
greatest  extension  to  the  right  or  left,  and  their 
general  direction ;  for  they  are  usually  much  thicker 
than  the  angles  on  the  protractor  which  they  are 
made  to  join. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  writer  to  adopt  some 
peculiarit}^  in  the  initial  of  the  first  name,  such  as 
beginning  it  much  above  or  below  the  line,  carrying 
a  flourish  from  its  last-written  part  to  surround  part 
or  all  of  the  other  letters,  etc. 

Attention  to  the  relative  sizes  and  angles  of  its 
different  parts  is  usually  rewarded  in  such  cases  by 
discovering  a  number  of  particulars  in  which  it  differs 
from  spurious  imitations.  These  latter,  however 
carefully  their  writers  try  to  carry  out  the  general 
design,  lack  the  ease  and  dash  of  the  genuine  letters 
even  if  they  are  more  symmetrical  and  better  joined. 
Leaving  such  peculiarities  aside  to  be  examined  in  all 
their  parts  under  a  high  power  of  the  magnifying- 
glass  or  the  compound  microscope,  it  is  always  well  to 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  113 

measure  the  height  and  breadth  from  easily  recognized 
parts,  and  the  slope  or  angle  with  the  base-line  of  the 
straight  parts  of  the  letter  if  it  have  these.  (In  such 
letters  as  O,  (y,  etc.,  this  latter  measurement  is  gener- 
ally useless.) 

After  the  examination  of  the  whole  series  of  undis- 
puted signatures,  some  point  on  the  first  initial  letter, 
or  the  next  following,  should  be  selected,  which  can  be 
easil}^  found  on  all  of  them,  and  from  this  the  distance 
from  the  first  to  some  similar  point  in  the  second  let- 
ter, and  to  some  similar  point  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
end  of  the  final  letter  of  the  first  name,  and  to  the 
end  of  any  intermediate  name  as  well  as  to  the  final 
letter  of  the  signature  can  be  measured.  The  distance 
apart  of  the  consecutive  letters,  and  the  breadth  of  the 
spaces  between  the  letters  or  names  of  the  signature 
should  be  then  measured.  The  more  of  these  meas- 
urements, which  are  carefully  taken,  the  greater  will 
be  the  accuracy  of  the  conclusion  drawn  from  their 
averages,  but  the  principal  elements  will  be  apparent 
after  some  practice. 

It  has  been  the  practice  of  the  writer  to  go  carefully 
over  the  writings  and  decide  upon  the  number  of 
measurements  of  length,  height,  and  angle  to  be  taken, 
and  then  to  rule  oft*  on  a  sheet  of  paper  a  number  of 
columns  equal  to  that  of  the  elements  selected,  leaving 
a  horizontal  line  for  every  signature  studied. 

In  this  way  the  numbers  corresponding  to  the  same 
elements  of  twenty  or  thirty  signatures  tall  into  ver- 


114  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

tical  columns  and  can  be  readily  added  and  a  mean 
taken.  It  will  also  be  found  advantageous  to  keep  the 
measurements  of  height,  of  horizontal  distance,  and  of 
angle  together  in  order  to  avoid  confusion. 

After  this  has  been  done  and  the  averages  placed 
under  the  columns,  the  signature  or  signatures  in  dis- 
pute are  carefully  measured  and  the  results  set  under 
these  averages.  This  method  has  the  merit  of  avoiding 
even  the  appearance  of  infringing  the  law  as  laid  down 
by  Judge  Woodward  against  the  direct  comparison  of 
signatures  by  experts,  while  leaving  the  facts  in  a  con- 
venient form  for  the  jury  to  make  this  comparison. 

Selection  of  Points. — It  will  often  be  found  difficult 
to  select  the  point  from  which  to  begin  and  that  at 
which  to  end  a  measurement.  Many  names  beginning 
with  rounded  letters,  like  ^  S,  (y,  etc.,  usually  difler 
in  breadth  in  ditferent  signatures  by  two  or  three  units 
of  the  scale  used,  and  the  peculiar  habit  of  writing  it 
may  make  any  letter  difficult  to  start  a  measurement 
from.  Wherever  a  flourish  or  other  habit  produces 
a  crossing  of  one  line  by  another,  such  crossing  is 
generally  a  good  point  from  which  to  start,  more 
especially  if  it  occur  near  the  completion  of  the  let- 
ter, because  however  erratic  the  general  appearance 
of  a  letter  may  be,  its  writer  will  insensibly  seek  to 
begin  it  and  end  it  in  the  same  way.  But  no  general 
description  will  suffice  to  indicate  in  all  cases  where  to 
select  the  points  for  meaBurement.  A  careful  study  of 
the  largest  number  of  undisputed  signatures  will  most 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  115 

probably  suggest  to  one  of  some  experience  what  to 
choose,  and  if  these  fail,  the  investigator  must  have 
recourse  to  certain  general  principles.  For  instance, 
it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  general  line  of  writing  is 
governed  by  the  writer's  habit  after  the  initial  letter  is 
formed.  In  the  case  of  a  blank  sheet  without  guide- 
lines even  an  experienced  writer  may  make  the  first 
letter  in  a  very  different  relation  to  the  top  and 
sides  of  the  sheet  from  that  he  naturally  adopts  when 
his  guide-line  is  furnished,  but  after  this  first  letter  is 
made  the  following  letters  will  preserve  to  it  closely 
the  normal  relation.  For  this  reason  it  will  often  be 
found  advisable  to  commence  the  measurement  with 
the  second  letter,  and  to  carry  the  measurements  only 
to  the  first  part  of  the  final  letter  to  avoid  the  frequent 
distortion  of  the  latter  part,  due  to  preparation  for  the 
ending,  which  usually  has  some  peculiarity  not  found 
in  the  same  final  letter  when  written  by  the  same 
writer  in  the  body  of  a  text. 

Angles. — After  all  the  characteristic  distances  be- 
tween the  selected  letters  have  been  measured,  great 
care  should  be  taken  in  measuring  the  angle  or  slope 
of  the  longer  letters, — /.e.,  the  A-,  (^d.  A,  as,  /s^  etc. 

The  advantage  of  this  is  that  the  slope  of  letters, 
besides  being  determined  by  the  natural  structure  of 
the  arm  of  the  writer,  and  his  or  her  long  habit  of 
employing  a  particular  point  of  it  for  a  pivot,  is  a  con- 
stant not  easily  appreciable  by  the  eye,  and  likely  to 
be  deviated  from  even  by  expert  forgers  whose  atten- 


116  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

tion  is  chiefly  fixed  on  imitating  the  forms  of  the  let- 
ters and  their  distances  from  one  another.  Of  course 
no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  usual  slope 
in  these  long  letters,  but  in  such  documents  as  the 
writer  has  measured  the  great  majority  have  shown 
the  slopes  of  the  letters  with  the  actual  or  imaginary 
guide-line  to  be  from  the  left  to  the  right  upward 
from  forty-five  degrees  to  seventy  degrees.  Very  few 
have  a  less  angle  with  the  guide-line  than  forty-five 
degrees,  and  though  there  are  not  infrequent  cases  of 
back-hand  writing  where  the  slope  is  from  the  upper 
left  hand  downward  to  the  right,  these  and  other 
slopes  exceeding  seventy  degrees  bear  a  very  small  pro- 
portion to  the  whole. 

Use  of  Averag-es  obtained. — A  large  number  of 
linear  and  angular  measurements  of  undisputed  signa- 
tures having  been  taken,  averages  of  all  are  obtained, 
and  these  averages  should  be  compared  with  either  the 
single  signature  in  dispute,  or,  if  there  be  several  of 
them,  with  each  separately,  and  also  with  their  aver- 
age. 

In  the  experience  of  the  writer  a  difference  of 
fifteen  per  cent,  between  the  two  constitutes  a  ground 
for  suspecting  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  writing, 
if  this  amount  is  reached  or  exceeded  in  several  of  the 
elements  measured. 

A  diflerence  of  ten  per  cent,  in  several  of  the  linear 
measurements  of  two  genuine  signatures  is  not  un- 
known, and  five  per  cent,  difference  in  the  angles  of 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY. 


ir 


TABLE    I. 
Angular  Measuretnents  of  a  Signature. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D  (down 
stroke). 

DOCUMENTS. 

J 
upper 

J 
lower 

b 

a 
upper 
part. 

6 
lower 
part. 

M 

M 

M 

M 

11 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

A 

50 

70 

30 

60 

50 

45 

55 

45 

45 

B 

40 

65 

30 

60 

50 

45 

55 

45 

45 

C 

45 

70 

50 

30 

60 

50 

45 

55 

45 

45 

D 

43 

70 

48 

30 

60 

50 

45 

55 

45 

45 

E 

50 

70 

50 

80 

60 

58 

45 

55 

45 

48 

F 

45 
40 

50 

70 
60 

70 

50 

48 

30 
40 

30 

70 
60 

60 

50 
50 

50 

45 
45 

45 

55 
55 

55 

45 
45 

45 

45 

G 

45 

H 

r48 

(45 

I 

55 

70 

48 

35 

60 

52 

48 

55 

45 

r 

U5 

J 

50 
50 
45 

65 
70 
70 

50 
50 
48 

30 
30 

28 

60 
60 
60 

50 
55 
52 

45 
45 
45 

55 
55 
55 

50 
45 
45 

45 

K 

45 

L 

45 

M 

45 

60 

45 

30 

60 

50 

43 

50 

45 

45 

N 

45 
45 

60 
70 

45 
50 

30 
30 

60 
65 

55 
55 

48 
48 

55 
58 

50 
50 

SO 

0 

45 

P 

40 
50 

60 
70 

42 
50 

20 
30 

60 
60 

50 
58 

42 
45 

60 
60 

43 
45 

45 

Q 

j50 

(48 

R 

50 

65 

50 

35 

60 

55 

45 

60 

50 

48 

40 

65 

45 

missing 

missing 

50 

40 

50 

43 

45 

T 

50 

60 

30 

60 

55 

50 

60 

50 

48 

Average  of  20  signatures 

46.4 

65.9 

48.06 

30.42 

60.79 

52.25 

45.20 

65.65 

46.05 

45.55 

Disputed  signature  (A)  . 

50 

70 

30 

60 

50 

45 

55 

45 

45 

Composite 

50 

68 

50 

32 

60 

50 

45 

55 

45 

46 

118  STUDY   OF    HAXDWRITING 

the  slopes  is  not  inadmissible,  but  it  is  rare  that  an 
average  of  a  number  of  genuine  signatures  will  differ 
from  any  normal  genuine  signature  by  as  much  as 
fifteen  per  cent.,  either  in  linear  measurement  or  in 
angle,  though  individual  signatures  may  do  so  from 
each  other. 

The  results  once  obtained  are  tabulated  and  placed 
in  columns  in  order  that  the  jury  may  compare  them 
and  draw  their  conclusions  from  such  comparison. 

In  the  tables  cited  here  as  examples  of  the  method 
of  tabulating  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  hand- 
writing it  is  unnecessary  to  use  the  names  in  full. 
They  have  all  appeared  in  judicial  proceedings,  and 
in  all  cases  the  verdict  of  the  jury  was  in  accordance 
with  their  indications. 

Example. — In  Table  I.  of  angular  measurements  of 
a  signature  the  capital  letters  on  the  left  refer  to  the 
different  records  or  instruments  on  which  the  signature 
was  found,  whether  note,  cheque,  letter,  decree  of  the 
court,  or  what  not.  The  angle  with  the  horizontal, 
which  was  measured  in  column  one,  was  the  upper  part 
of  the  descending  stroke  of  a  capital  "  J."  In  column 
two  it  was  the  lower  part  of  this  same  stroke.  In 
column  three  it  w^as  that  of  the  down  stroke  of  a  small 
"  b."  In  four  it  was  the  down  stroke  of  the  capital 
"  D."  In  five  it  was  the  first  stroke  of  a  capital  "  M." 
In  six  it  was  the  second  down  stroke  of  the  same 
letter.  In  seven  it  was  the  third  or  up  stroke.  In 
eiffht  it  was  the  final  down  stroke  of  the  same  letter. 


AND   DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  119 

In  nine  it  was  the  angle  made  by  the  two  small  "I's." 
The  word  "  composite"  indicates  the  measurements  of 
the  photographic  composite  of  all  the  signatures.  The 
method  of  preparing  these  composites  will  be  explained 
later. 

The  question  at  issue  in  Talkie  I.  was  whether  or  not 
a  certain  signature  was  genuine,  and  twenty  undis- 
puted signatures  were  obtained  from  which  to  make  a 
basis  of  comparison.  In  this  case,  for  particular  rea- 
sons, only  angular  measurements  were  taken.  These 
gave  the  average  noted  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  The 
same  elements  of  the  signature  in  dispute  were 
obtained  and  written  under  these  averages.  The 
agreement  was  so  close  as  to  justify  the  belief  that 
the  disputed  signature  was  genuine. 

A  composite  photograph  was  then  made  of  the 
twenty  signatures,  and  the  elements  of  the  composite 
were  also  measured.  The  agreement  of  these  with 
those  of  the  disputed  signature  was  extraordinary,  and 
tends  to  show  that  wherever  ap})licable  the  method  of 
study  by  composite  photography  is  more  accurate 
than  by  numerical  average  or  measurement.  Forti- 
fied by  this  double  corroboration  it  was  only  neces- 
sary for  the  witness  to  read  and  vouch  for  the  accu- 
racy of  the  observations  successively  recorded  in  the 
horizontal  lines  and  for  the  jury  to  read  these  results 
in  the  vertical  lines  to  enable  the  latter  to  appreciate 
the  strength  of  the  proof. 


120  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

COMPOSITE    PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The  following  statement  of  the  case,  with  very  few 
modifications,  is  condensed  from  two  papers  presented 
by  the  writer  to  the  Franklin  Institute  and  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society  respectively  in  1886. 

Francis  Galton  was  the  first  to  point  out  in  fugitive 
memoirs,  and  notably  in  his  important  work,  "The 
Human  Faculty,"  that  one  could  sift  the  common 
from  the  accidental  features  of  a  number  of  objects 
by  exposing  them  in  succession  to  a  sensitized  plate 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  images  of  the  similar  parts 
of  the  different  objects  should  occupy  as  neirrly  as 
possible  the  same  parts  of  the  plate ;  and  that  each 
object  should  be  exposed  for  only  a  fraction  of  the 
length  of  time  necessary  to  complete  a  picture  on 
the  film  used.  This  fraction  depended  generally, 
if  not  always,  on  the  number  of  objects  and  on  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  film.  For  example,  if  there 
were  eighteen  objects  and  the  plate  took  thirty-six 
seconds  to  develop,  each  object  would  ordinarily  be 
exposed  for  two  seconds.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
result  in  the  finished  picture  would  be  that  those 
features  which  all  the  objects  had  in  common  would 
be   reinforced   by   each    separate    exposure,    whereas 


AND   DETECTION    OF   FORGERY.  121 

those  features  which  were  accidental  or  variable, 
and  which  would  be  different  for  every  individual, 
would  be  exposed  for  but  two  seconds  and  would 
be  so  indistinct  as  practically  to  disappear.  Where 
the  object  was  to  catch  a  family  likeness  by  exposing 
all  the  members  male  and  female  to  the  same  portion 
of  the  plate,  the  result  was  a  curious  medley  of  faint 
whiskers  and  moustache ;  of  hair  parted  in  the  middle 
and  at  the  side ;  of  female  gowns  with  buttons  to  the 
throat,  and  of  male  shooting-jackets  thrown  open. 
But  out  of  all  this  faint  halo  of  confusion  and  blur, 
there  starts  a  characteristic  face  which  is  the  family 
type.  Very  often,  too,  this  type-face  resembles  no- 
ticeably two  different  members  of  a  family  between 
whom  no  one  can  find  a  resemblance.  It  is  this  latter 
fact  (which  might  have  been  expected)  that  induced 
the  writer  to  look  to  the  process  for  aid  in  solving 
the  problem  of  identity  of  origin  in  handwriting. 
When  a  number  of  animals  of  the  same  race  are 
thus  treated,  the  method  fixes  the  race  or  family  char- 
acteristics, etc.,  as  the  case  may  be.  When  a  number 
of  pictures  or  coins  bearing  different  representations 
of  the  same  individual  or  scene  are  the  objects,  the  re- 
sult is  to  obtain  either  the  average  appearance  of  the 
same  thing  under  different  conditions  (as  for  instance 
a  man  at  different  times  of  life),  or  the  average  of 
the  impression  made  by  identically  the  same  thing  on 
different  artists.  In  this  latter  case  the  merit  of  the 
process  is  that  it  constructs  its  image  out  of  all  that 


122  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

many  pairs  of  trained  ejes  have  seen,  without  giving 
undue  weight  to  any  one  pair.  So  far,  then,  these 
efforts  have  been  directed  to  recovering  a  lost  or 
concealed  existence  through  multiple  testimony,  ver^- 
much  as  the  law  tries  to  get  at  the  truth  by 
examining  a  number  of  witnesses. 

A  line  made  by  a  human  arm  and  hand  is  liable  to 
the  variations  which  such  an  arm  or  hand  must  pro- 
duce when  influenced,  as  they  always  are,  by  indefi- 
nitely numerous  physical  and  mental  forces.  A  line 
on  paper  so  produced  is  as  much  a  resultant  of  organic 
processes  as  the  outline  of  the  human  figure  or  the 
expressions  of  the  human  face.  It  is  a  kind  of  fossil 
like  the  print  of  a  footstep  or  of  a  leaf  which,  while 
it  consists  of  nothing  having  life,  or  that  ever  need 
have  had  life,  and  possesses  none  of  the  material  of 
the  body  which  made  it,  is  capable,  like  the  impres- 
sions above  referred  to,  of  telling  a  great  deal  of  the 
characteristics  of  its  creator ;  it  is,  in  fact,  as  organic 
as  the  forms  of  living  things  by  which  we  judge 
them,  for  their  forms  or  images  do  not  possess  life 
either. 

With  a  given  mental  image  of  what  one  desires  to 
write  before  one,  and  with  a  given  relation  of  will- 
power, nerve  sensitiveness,  and  muscular  force,  the 
same  signature  could  be  repeated  a  thousand  times, 
provided  that  all  these,  conditions  were  invariable, 
and  no  others  were  superadded.  So  far  from  this 
being  the  case,  however,  eveiy  one  of  the  factors  just 


AND    DETECTION   OF    FOEGBEY.  123 

named  which  join  to  produce  a  signature  depends  on 
physical  and  mental — in  other  words,  on  extraneous — 
influences  to  a  very  large  degree.  The  movement 
commenced  to  eifect  an  up  stroke  is  met  by  an  un- 
expected obstacle  in  the  paper,  a  slight  twinge  in 
the  shoulder,  or  a  sudden  noise,  and  the  resulting 
line  would  show  (were  we  sufficiently  cognizant  of 
the  detailed  working  of  all  the  complicated  parts 
of  our  mental  machinery  to  interpret  it)  just  the  order 
in  which  our  diflfereut  sentient  and  executive  functions 
have  been  affected,  and  to  what  extent.  But  while 
these  ever-recurring  accidents  result  in  preventing 
any  signature  from  being  made  exactly  as  intended,^ 
the  fact  that  no  two  of  them  represent  the  same  kind 
or  amount  of  deviation  leaves  it  in  the  power  of  the 
experimenter  to  extract  from  this  process  the  "  ideal" 
signature, — a  signature  which  probably  never  was  seen 
as  it  appears,  and  yet  which  so  combines  all  the  visible 
results  of  a  particular  will  acting  on  a  particular  arm 
to  trace  on  paper  a  known  design  with  a  pen  or  pencil 
that  it  may  justly  be  called  the  ti/ye  signature  of  that 
writer.  What  was  said  of  the  resemblance  of  every 
object  of  a  group  of  objects  which  have  any  claim  to 
be  associated  together  to  the  composite  made  of  that 
group,  even  though  it  differ  widely  from  other  mem- 


1  The  word  "  intended"  is  used  to  imply  the  effect  which  would  be 
produced  by  the  action  of  the  will  through  the  hand  on  the  paper  if 
not  modified  by  these  accidents,  and  not  solely  conscious  intention. 


124  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

bers  of  the  same  group,  is  true  of  handwriting.  It 
has  been  remarked  that  the  composite  signature  is  an 
ideal,  and  never  was  realized.  This  is  because  the 
lines  along  which  the  strongest  reinforcements  are 
made  are  those  parts  of  the  signature  where  the  pen 
most  frequently  passes.  To  put  it  in  another  form, 
suppose  the  signatures  a,  6,  c,  and  d  to  be  in  agreement 
as  follows :  At  the  point  «',  b  does  not  coincide,  but 
c  and  (/  do.  At  6',  c  does  not  coincide,  but  d  and  a 
do.  At  c',  d  does  not  coincide,  but  a  and  h  do.  The 
tracing  which  would  represent  to  the  eye  part  of  the 
ideal  signature  would  be  that  traversing  the  points  a\ 
b',  c',  d',  because  those  points  having  superposed  lines 
of  three  out  of  the  four  signatures  would  be  darker, 
while  the  variations  at  each  of  these  points  would  be 
indistinct. 

In  examining  with  care  such  a  composite  signature  as 
has  been  just  described,  it  at  once  arrests  the  attention 
that  the  variations  are  not  equally  distributed  over  the 
entire  body  of  the  letter,  but  that  there  are  regions  of 
each  letter  where  variations  of  a  particular  kind  are 
noticeable,  and  other  regions  where  there  are  few  or 
none.  The  greater  the  number  of  manuscripts  of  an 
individual  which  are  compared,  the  more  forcibly  does 
this  fact  appear,  until  finally  one  is  tempted  to  con- 
clude that  after  a  handwriting  is  once  formed  it  can- 
not naturally  exhibit  deviations  except  within  defined 
limits,  and  in  certain  small  areas  adjacent  to  the  sepa- 
rate letters.    It  is  thus  as  great  an  assistance  to  the  ob- 


AND    DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  125 

server  to  study  the  variations  as  to  study  the  ideal  sig- 
nature. Indeed,  the  variations  are  all  important  in 
the  matter  of  identification,  and  if  there  were  no  varia- 
tions the  method  would  be  inapplicable,  because  an 
exact  copy  might  be  made  by  tracing.  A  compara- 
tivel}^  small  number  of  signatures  will  give  the  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  of  variation  in  any  given  region 
of  one  of  the  letters  forming  it.  Moreover,  the  kind 
of  variation  is  easily  observed  where  there  are  a  num- 
ber together,  so  that  the  most  perfect  adept  at  forgery 
could  hardly  hope  to  simulate  the  microscopically 
minute  characteristics  of  variations  which  are  simpl}- 
the  visible  expression  of  a  series  of  indefinitely  com- 
plex relations  of  certain  particular  muscles  and  nerves. 
Composite  photography  is  a  method  of  obtaining 
the  essence  of  a  number  of  objects  and  (in  so  far  as 
those  objects  are  typical  of  similar  phenomena)  of  re- 
cording the  relations  of  things  to  each  other,  and  the 
effects  produced  by  a  certain  force  or  certain  forces  on 
matter.^ 

^  In  a  pleasant  letter  received  from  Mr.  Francis  Galton,  F.R.S.,  in 
answer  to  a  copy  of  the  paper  on  this  subject  which  1  sent  him,  he 
mentions  that  an  attempt  was  made  at  the  Kew  Observatory  to  apply 
the  principle  of  composite  photography  even  to  the  meteorological 
charts,  without  great  success,  though  with  more  than  Mr.  Galton 
would  have  anticipated. 

A  more  recent  and  fortunate  application  of  the  principle  appears 
in  the  American  Oeologist  for  April,  1894,  where  Mr.  J.  M.  Clarke 
mentions  the  successful  use  of  this  method  to  procure  a  "funda- 
mentum"    for   the   variations  of    Leptodesma,    a   genus   of    lamelli 


126  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

The  merely  formal  and  always  repeated  parts  of  a 
letter  or  other  document  have  an  entirely  different 
character  value  from  those  parts  which  are  composed 
of  words  and  letters  thrown  together  to  represent  a 
certain  state  of  things,  and  which  may  never  be  re- 
peated in  exactly  the  same  order.  Obviously  no  com- 
posite of  phrases  can  be  expected  unless  the  phrase 
have  a  technical  significance,  but  separate  words  can 
be  selected  to  form  bases  of  composites,  or  even  the 
two  or  three  words  which  enter  into  an  idiom,  one  of 
those  well  trodden  short  cuts  of  language  to  a  given 
idea.  Such  partial  phrases  (rendered  frequently  in 
other  languages  by  a  single  word),  as  "  in  order  that," 
"  as  w^ell  as,"  "  not  only,"  •'  but  also,"  etc.,  will  be 
found  in  the  handw^riting  of  any  one  accustomed  to 
write  much,  and  may  be  taken  as  elements  out  of 
which  to  construct  composites  of  the  words  of  which 
they  consist ;  but  the  value  of  such  elements  in  help- 
ing one  to  a  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  person 
who  penned  them,  or  even  of  the  general  character  of 
the  writer's  handwriting  is  not  as  great  in  these  cases 
as  it  is  in  the  signature  and  the  few  formal  words 
w^hich  precede  it  in  a  letter.  There  are  several  reasons 
for  this  :  one  is  that  these  formulas  occur  in  difl'erent 
connections  w^ith   the   accompanying  text,  indicating 

branchs  occurring  in  the  Hamilton  and  Chenaung  stages.  The 
strongest  lines  in  the  composite  correspond  nearly  with  Leptodesma 
Kogersi. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  127 

very  different  attitudes  of  mind  in  the  several  cases. 
The  sense  of  what  is  written  must  have  a  large  influ- 
ence in  the  manner  of  writing  it,  and  therefore  the 
letters  composing  these  words  will  be  larger  or  lighter, 
or  more  or  less  quickly  and  angularly  written  as  the 
idea  of  the  sentence  by  reflex  action  evokes  different 
emotions  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  A  circumstance 
equally  noticeable  will  be  the  place  on  the  paper  which 
the  words  occupy,  whether  there  is  an  abundance  of 
room  to  write  the  words,  or  whether  they  are  cramped 
in  order  to  bring  them  into  a  smaller  space.  In  cases 
where  the  words  of  such  a  subphrase  are  divided  be- 
tween two  lines,  they  will  almost  surely  not  appear 
as  they  would  when  they  follow  each  other  in  their 
natural  order.  But  even  more  than  these  is  the  fact 
that  the  signature  and  its  connected  words,  "  Yours 
truly,"  etc.,  are  always  indicative  of  the  task  completed, 
the  information  conveyed.  They  are  words  of  cere- 
mony and  endorsement,  no  matter  what  the  contents  of 
the  letter  may  be.  The}'  are  invariably  repeated  and 
come  to  be  a  purely  conventional  sign,  of  which  the 
parts  resemble  more  or  less  the  letters  in  the  body  of 
the  writing  in  different  people.  This  symbol  usually 
occupies  very  nearly  the  same  part  of  the  page — at 
least  as  to  its  distance  from  the  right  or  left  hand  edge 
of  the  paper — and  this  tends  to  fix  it  as  a  distinguish- 
ing sign.  All  these  facts  lead  to  a  distinction  between 
a  signature  and  that  writing  by  the  same  hand  which 
accompanies  original  composition. 


128  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

There  are,  of  course,  peculiarities  in  every  hand 
which  can  be  traced  both  in  the  signature  and  in  the 
body  of  the  text.  These  are  very  apparent  when  the 
writer  labors  under  a  physical  disadvantage,  such  as  a 
maimed  or  deformed  hand  or  arm,  but  in  lesser  degree 
these  peculiarities  are  present  in  every  handwriting 
and  constitute  the  general  constant  of  "  will-power, 
nerve  sensitiveness,  and  muscular  force"  employed  by 
a  given  individual  in  this  perfunct    _y  iiabu; 

It  is  not  always  entirely  obvious  how  signatures  with 
many  light  flourishes,  or  accompanied  by  intricate 
lines  connecting  their  several  parts,  should  be  super- 
posed ;  for  these  appendices  are  so  easily  affected  by 
minute  causes  that  it  seldom  happens  that  two  will 
cover  each  other  exactly.  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  such  parts  will  survive  in  the  resulting  type  signa- 
ture, but  the  breadth  of  the  space  covered  by  the  blur 
and  parallelism  of  the  faint  lines  will  give  evidence 
of  the  extent  to  which  these  ornaments  have  grown 
from  caprice  to  a  habit. 

As  a  general  rule,  there  are  several  places — some- 
times as  many  as  eight  or  nine  in  a  long  signature — 
where  the  darkening  of  the  lines  indicates  a  general 
conformity  of  the  pen's  path  to  one  direction,  and  it 
would  seem  that  these  places  were  not  peculiar  to  any 
one  part  of  a  letter,  nor  that  they  were  less  in  a  hair- 
line than  in  a  heavy  stroke.  They  appear  to  be 
dependent  upon  the  anatomy  and  muscular  structure 
of  the  individual  taken  in  connection  with  his  method 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  129 

of  performing  the  act  of  writing  his  signature.  For  in- 
stance, some  writers  can  only  form  one  or  two  letters 
without  moving  the  writing  hand ;  only  a  word  or  so 
without  shifting  the  elbow ;  others  describe  with  the 
forearm  of  the  writing  hand  a  curve  around  the  elbow, 
which  latter  remains  stationary ;  others  slide  the  fore- 
arm along  into  parallel  positions  while  writing.  All 
these  habits  have  different  effects  upon  the  handwriting 
which  results,  tno  gh  they  are  not  always  to  be  easily 
detected,  owing  to  the  fact  that  other  habits  are  culti- 
vated at  the  same  time  to  counteract  the  defect  which 
each  of  these  methods,  when  not  so  compensated, 
would  have  impressed  upon  the  appearance  of  the 
chirography. 

Thus,  he  who  writes  with  a  definite  part  of  the  arm 
pivoted  immovably  upon  the  table  must  learn  to  move 
the  fingers  over  a  greater  space  at  some  part  of  the  line, 
to  avoid  the  curve  which  would  unconsciously  result. 
This  more  vigorous  movement  of  the  fingers  is  nat- 
urally likely  to  produce  heavier  strokes  in  the  part  of 
the  signature  where  the  compensation  is  applied.  So 
that  a  fixed  forearm  and  heavy  letter  in  the  middle  of 
the  signature  may  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation 
of  cause  and  effect. 

The  Methods  of  making  Composites. — There  are 
two  methods  of  making  composites.  The  first  was 
suggested  by  Mr.  Galton,  and  consists  in  exposing  the 
sensitive  plate  to  each  of  the  objects  in  succession  for 
a  fraction  of  the  time  necessary  to  develop  a  picture, 


130  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

care  being  taken  to  bring  similar  parts  of  the  images 
formed  by  the  lenses  over  the  same  part  of  the  plate. 
The  plate  will  be  exposed  to  each  object  for  a  time 
equal  to  the  number  of  seconds  required  for  a  com- 
plete exposure,  divided  by  the  number  of  objects. 

This  plan  is  preferable,  and  in  fact  necessary,  where 
each  object  supplies  details  to  a  large  part  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  sensitive  plate  included  by  its  outline. 

The  second  method,  which  is  equally  applicable  to 
linear  designs  like  handwriting,  consists  in  photo- 
graphing each  object  on  a  film  of  gelatinized  celluloid 
and  making  a  composite  by  superposing  these  films, 
and  photographing  them  all  together  when  thus  super- 
posed. 

If  the  number  of  authentic  signatures  from  which 
the  composite  is  to  be  made  is  very  large,  they  are 
sorted  into  different  lots,  each  lot  consisting  of  sig- 
natures having  approximately  the  same  dimensions, 
and  composites  are  made  from  these  lots,  care  being 
taken  to  make  the  resulting  composites  equally  long 
by  altering  the  distance  of  the  objects  from  the  camera 
where  necessary. 

Composites  can  be  made  of  these  first  composites 
again  until  a  final  plate  is  secured  representing  the 
composite  of  all  the  genuine  signatures  employed. 

Such  a  final  composite  will  appear  as  a  lieavy,  thick- 
lined  signature,  which,  nevertheless,  exhibits  very 
strikingly  the  peculiarities  of  its  writer's  hand. 

Where  extreme   precision  is  required,  or,  in  cases 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  131 

where  the  writing  is  so  wide  and  loose  that  good  com- 
posites of  the  two  or  more  names  as  a  whole  cannot  he 
obtained,  it  will  he  necessary  to  make  a  composite  of 
each  name,  or  even  of  each  letter  separately,  and  to 
stud}^  the  suspected  writing  name  by  name,  or  letter 
by  letter. 

This  plan,  while  more  laborious  and  expensive,  is 
much  more  certain  to  lead  to  good  results,  because  it 
deals  with  each  element  of  the  complete  signature  sepa- 
rately, and  not  with  groups  of  them  together.  But  in 
most  cases  the  treatment  of  the  whole  signature  or 
each  name  as  a  unit  will  yield  important  data  for  de- 
ciding its  validity.  A  composite  of  each  name  of  a 
signature  will  obviate  the  difliculty  of  dealing  with  too 
great  a  quantity  of  variables  at  once ;  and  this  method 
is  preferable  to  the  analysis  of  the  elements,  because 
there  is  a  character  in  the  way  in  which  the  letters 
are  strung  together  which  is  overlooked  when  they 
are  considered  each  by  itself. 

The  first  composites  of  signatures  were  made  for  the 
author  by  Mr.  W.  Curtis  Taylor,  now  in  Tacoma, 
Washington.  To  him  I  am  indebted  for  the  composite 
of  the  Washington  signatures,  which  accompanied  my 
})aper  on  the  process  to  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  in  1886,  and  which  is  also  given  here.  (Plate 
IV.,  Fig.  4.) 

This  plate  was  made  by  Galton's  method  of  ex- 
posing each  of  the  objects  to  the  same  sensitive  plate 
for  less  time  than  is  necessary  to  develop  that  plate. 


132  STUDY   OF   HANDAVRITING 

More  recently  Mr.  Charles  Truscott,  of  this  city,  has 
prepared  another  composite  for  me  from  the  same 
signatures  by  the  method  of  superposition,  and  I  ap- 
pend his  letter  on  the  subject.  He  favors  the  plan 
of  superposing  positives  of  signatures  taken  on  cellu- 
loid, and  photographing  them  all  at  one  operation. 

May  1,  1894. 
Dr.  Peksifor  Frazer  : 

Dear  Sir, — As  a  person  rarely  makes  two  signatures  to  exactly 
the  same  scale,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  or  enlarge  each  so  as  to  bring 
them  all  to  a  common  standard  gauge.  This  must  be  done  by  photo- 
graphic means,  and  thought  and  patience  are  required  in  no  common 
degree. 

Before  beginning  work  on  a  given  signature,  it  should  be  decided 
whether  the  signature  should  be  made  as  one  composite  or  two. 

If  the  writing  has  been  done  with  one  sweep  of  the  pen  it  may 
make  a  good  composite,  as  a  whole,  although  composed  of  two  or  even 
three  words,  but  if  the  words  have  a  break  between  them  any  irregu- 
larity in  this  space  would  prevent  prompt  registering. 

The  next  point  to  decide  is  the  scale  to  use,  and  still  more  impor- 
tant the  points  of  measurement  to  adopt.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  ; 
a  little  experience  will  soon  develop  judgment.  It  might  be  pointed 
out,  however,  that  the  capitals  had  better  be  left  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves, or  a  separate  composite  made  of  them,  and  the  points  of  meas- 
urement should  be  the  length  rather  than  the  height  of  the  signature, 
and  a  point  at  the  bottom  line  rather  than  the  top  of  letters,  except  in 
the  case  of  an  "  e"  when  it  is  near  either  end  of  the  word,  and  when 
its  intersecting  line  makes  a  good  point. 

The  next  operation  is  to  tabulate  the  signatures  with  dates  and 
measurements  in  decimals  between  the  points  of  each  signature 
adopted.  Then  they  should  be  classified,  those  having  heavy  lines 
from  those  written  with  a  fine  pen  ;  or  they  may  be  assorted  in  groups 
according  to  their  dates,  the  groups  being  selected  which  are  most 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  133 

desirable  for  a  composite.  It  is  well  to  make  a  composite  of  two 
groups,  one  heavy  line  and  one  light,  or  one  group  in  one  year  and 
another  several  years  apart,  noticing  the  development  or  evolution  of 
the  signature. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  disputed  signature  is  simulated  from  a 
type  long  abandoned,  hence  the  advantage  of  the  composites  each 
belonging  to  the  same  date,  one  later  and  one  earlier  if  possible. 

When  ready  to  begin  photographing,  I  use  a  lens  of  from  twelve  to 
twenty  inch  focus  of  the  rapid  doublet  type.  A  focussing  screen  of  fine 
texture  and  more  transparent  than  ground  glass  is  necessary  to  facili- 
tate the  use  of  the  dividers  in  adjusting  the  scale  with  that  nicety 
on  which  everything  depends.  A  strip  of  paper  is  stretched  across 
under  the  signature  on  which  the  date  or  some  distinguishing  num- 
ber is  written  to  be  photographed,  with  the  signature  for  identifi- 
cation. Good,  vigorous  negatives  are  now  made  of  all  the  selected 
signatures  in  this  way. 

The  next  step  is  to  make  transparent  positives  from  these  on  thin 
celluloid  (Kodak  film).  These  positives  should  be  all  made  of  the 
same  density,  otherwise  the  components  will  not  contribute  an  equal 
share  in  the  result.  They  should  not  be  made  very  strong,  or  there 
will  be  difficulty  in  causing  the  composite  to  have  all  the  gradations 
due  to  the  superposed  lines. 

The  films  must  be  accurately  superposed,  in  which  operation  there 
will  be  scope  for  considerable  ingenuity,  as  on  good  registration  the 
success  or  failure  of  the  result  depends. 

The  exposure  should  be  full  but  not  excessive,  or  the  single  lines 
will  be  lost. 

Charles  Truscott. 

The  method  of  examining  by  composite  photog- 
raphy is  recommended  wherever  applicable,  because 
it  includes  all  the  elements  of  character  in  a  hand- 
writing, and  not  merely  a  selected  few ;  because  it 
eliminates    the    personal    error    of    observation    and 


134  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

measurement,  and  represents  everything  in  the  final 
result  which  existed  in  the  separate  cases ;  and  because 
it  is  a  method  which  can  be  explained  to  the  jury, 
and  its  results  left  to  their  judgment. 

In  this  it  is  even  better  than  the  tables  drawn  up  to 
represent  the  numerical  averages  by  measurement, 
because  it  appeals  at  once  to  the  eye  and  requires  no 
previous  knowledge  of  mathematics.  It  enables  the 
jury  to  make  a  direct  comparison,  and  not  the  expert, 
with  the  advantage  that  instead  of  comparing  one 
signature  with  another  they  can  compare  the  signa- 
ture in  question  with  the  concentrated  essence  of  many 
signatures  of  which  the  adventitious  components  have 
been  removed. 

The  method  of  examining  handwriting  by  the  aid 
of  composite  photography  would  seem,  therefore, 
when  properly  employed,  and  not  abused,  or  strained 
to  procure  results  which  it  cannot  give,  to  be  simple  and 
reliable,  and,  if  the  photographs  have  been  honestly 
and  wisely  prepared,  it  removes  the  personaHty  of  the 
expert  from  the  case  altogether. 

"Washington's  Signature. — George  Washington's 
signature  has  been  selected  as  an  illustration,  because 
many  persons  are  familiar  with  it,  and  there  are  nu- 
merous well-authenticated  documents  in  existence 
which  bear  it.  It  is,  however,  a  severe  te^t  of  the 
principle  because  of  its  length  and  the  dash  and  free- 
dom with  which  it  was  written. 

In  writing  his  signature  Washington  put  pen  to  the 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  135 

paper  five  times.  First  he  wrote  the  ''  G  W"  in  one 
connected  line.  Second,  he  raised  his  hand  and  made 
the  small  "  o"  between  the  upper  parts  of  the  G  and 
W,  and  the  two  dots  which  appear  in  all  but  signature 
Ko.  7.  Third,  his  hand  and  arm  were  placed  in  posi- 
tion to  write  "  ashing,"  these  six  letters  occupying  a 
breadth  of  almost  exactly  four  and  one-half  centime- 
ters (or  one  and  three-fourths  inches)  in  every  signa- 
ture except  the  third,  when  they  are  extended  to  four 
and  seven-tenths  centimeters  (or  one  and  thirteen-six- 
teenths  inches).  This  is  about  as  much  of  the  arc  of 
a  circle,  of  which  the  centre  is  some  part  of  the  fore- 
arm pivoted  on  the  table,  as  one  with  arms  and  hands 
of  average  length  can  cause  to  coincide  with  the  tan- 
gent, or  the  base  line  of  the  letters,  unless  unusual 
effort  be  made  and  a  great  deal  more  movement  be 
given  to  the  fingers.  The  "  g"  ends  in  a  curved 
flourish,  of  which  the  convex  side  is  turned  upward 
below  the  right  centre  of  the  name.^  Fourth,  he 
wrote  the  final  "ton."  Fifth,  he  added  the  very  pe- 
culiar flourish  above  the  right  centre  of  the  name, 
with  the  object  of  dotting  the  "  i"  and  crossing  the 
"  t"  at  the  same  stroke. 

In  examining  the  composite,  the  effect  of  these 
various  separate  movements  becomes  manifest  in  its 
strengthened  portions.     It  is  hardly  possible  that  any 


^  The  lowei-  loop  of  the  "g"  in  all  the  signatures  and  in  the  com- 
posite was  cut  oil"  in  preparing  the  plate. 


136  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

one  during  the  period  of  sixteen  years,  which  tliese 
signatures  represent,  or  from  1776  to  1792,  should  have 
so  schooled  his  hand  to  write  a  long  name  that  the  first 
three  or  four  centimeters  of  the  writing  should  always 
occupy  the  same  relative  position  to  the  hody  of  the  sig- 
nature. It  would  take  at  least  that  much  action  for  the 
hand  and  arm  and  pen  to  be  brought  into  normal  signa- 
ture-writing condition ;  and  especially  is  this  so  when 
the  part  of  the  writing  we  are  considering  is  accom- 
panied by  flourishes,  as  it  is  in  this  case.  The  "  G  W" 
and  the  little  "  o"  and  the  dots  at  the  top  were  the  pre- 
lude, after  which  the  arm  was  moved  into  position  to 
write  the  main  body  of  the  signature,  or  the"  ashing." 
Of  course,  from  the  manner  of  making  the  dots,  and  the 
extremely  small  space  they  cover,  their  reinforcement 
of  each  other  in  the  composite  was  almost  impossible, 
and,  in  fact,  like  other  subordinate  characters,  they 
disappear  almost  completely.  This  latter  is  the  part 
of  the  name  which  one  would  have  expected  to  exhibi 
the  greatest  amount  of  uniformity,  as  in  point  of  fafil 
it  does,  with  the  exception  of  its  terminal  "  g,"  whjchj 
shows  more  variation  than  an}^  of  the  other  letters,  be- 
cause at  this  point  the  limit  of  coincidence  between  the 
tangent  line  of  the  writing  and  the  curve,  of  which 
some  part  of  the  right  fdi^'SHiiai  was  the  radius,  had 
been  passed,  and  a  freer  movement  of  the  fingers  was 
compensating  for  the  increasing  divergence. 

The  fourth  separate  act  of  the  penman  was  the  for- 
mation   of    the    "  ton"    after    changing   the    point    of 


f ' 

•  >( 

.;<^^ 

/*           A^N 

^■i  . 

.\^ 

\ 

'     X 

si 


w 


;  i  \ 


\^ 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  137 

rest  of  the  arm.  The  breadth  of  the  space  occupied 
by  these  three  letters  is  from  0.75  to  0.87  centimeter 
(or  five-eighths  to  seven-eighths  of  an  inch),  and  con- 
siderably within  the  range  of  coincidence  of  the  curve 
and  straight  line  before  referred  to;  owing  to  this 
fact  there  is  onl}^  a  moderate  degree  of  reinforce- 
ment of  the  letters  in  the  composite,  because  these  let- 
ters might  fall  into  the  first  or  last  part  of  the  five 
centimeters  of  space  which  was  the  limit  of  movement 
with  a  fixed  elbow.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  even  in 
this  case  the  middle  letter  of  the  three  is  darker  in 
the  composite  than  either  of  the  outside  letters.  The 
fifth  and  last  movement  was  the  flourish  which  dots 
the  "  i"  and  crosses  the  "  t"  by  one  stroke.  This  was 
done  in  the  freest  of  free  hands,  often,  as  it  seems 
probable,  without  resting  hand  or  arm  on  the  table  at 
all.  Therefore  there  is  no  coincidence  of  the  lines  in 
this  part  of  the  composite,  and  the  region  of  variation 
is  wider  than  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  signature. 

All  the  signatures  used  in  the  accompanying  plate 
iJX.)  (seven  in  number)  are  unquestionably  genuine. 
With  the  exception  of  one,  which  is  the  property  of 
the  writer,  they  were  carefully  chosen  from  a  number 
of  authenticated  signatures  in  the  possession  of  the 
Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania. 

No.  1  is  on  a  letter  dated  December  18,  1776,  from 
near  the  Falls  of  Trenton,  and  addressed  to  Washing- 
ton's brother  Samuel. 

No.  2  is  on  a  letter  dated  Ilead-quarters,  November 


138  STUDY    OF    HANDAVRITING 

"4,  1777,  and  is  addressed  to  the  writer's  great-grand- 
father, Lieutenant-Colonel  Persifor  Frazer,  then  a 
prisoner  of  war  in  Philadelphia. 

No.  3  is  on  a  letter  dated  September  27,  1777,  and 
is  to  William  Henry,  of  Lancaster. 

JSTo.  4  is  the  composite  of  all  the  signatures  by  Gal- 
ton's  process  of  using  one  sensitive  plate  made  by 
Mr.  W.  Curtis  Taylor. 

5^0.  4a  is  the  composite  of  Nos.  1,  3,  5,  and  8,  made 
by  Mr.  Truscott,  who  photographed  the  superposed 
positives  on  celluloid  strips. 

J^o.  5  is  on  a  letter  dated  Head-quarters  in  Morris- 
town,  February  22,  1777.  The  person  to  whom  the 
letter  was  addressed  is  not  stated. 

No.  6,  dated  September  26,  1793,  is  affixed  to  the 
commission  of  David  Lenox. 

No.  7,  of  the  same  date,  is  affixed  to  David  Lenox's 
appointment  as  agent  for  the  relief  and  protection  of 
American  Seamen. 

No.  8,  May  24,  1799,  on  a  letter  to  Thomson  Mason. 


The  following  statement  of  the  celebrated  contest 
over  the  Whitaker  will  is  condensed  from  the  paper- 
book  of  Mr.  Samuel  Dickson  before  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  No.  1,  Philadelphia  County,  Sheets  vs. 
Whitaker,  on  the  motion  for  a  new  trial. 

Robert  Whitaker  was  killed  on  the  23d  of  August, 
1878,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  28th  of  August  a  tele- 
gram was  sent  from  New  York  in  the  name  of  Wil- 


AND    DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  139 

liam  R.  Dickerson  to  the  Reo-ister  of  Wills,  statino; 
that  he  had  a  will  of  Robert  Whitaker  which  he  would 
bring  over  for  probate. 

Certain  persons  were  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
forgery.  Before  the  magistrate,  testimony  was  given 
that  these  persons  drafted  a  will  and  had  it  copied  by 
the  former  attorney  of  Robert  Whitaker,  whom  they 
had  associated  with  them  in  the  conspiracy.  The  sig- 
nature of  Whitaker  was  traced  by  an  expert  forger 
from  a  genuine  signature  found  upon  a  deed  made  by 
Robert  Whitaker  several  years  before. 

The  copy  of  the  signature,  seal,  and  the  concluding 
lines  of  the  last  page  of  this  famous  document  has 
been  made  from  a  photograph  kindly  loaned  to  the 
author  for  that  purpose  by  ex-Judge  F.  Carroll  Brews- 
ter :  the  original  document,  now  in  the  possession  of 
the  Register  of  Wills  of  this  city,  having  been  found 
by  the  photographer  sent  to  his  office  to  copy  it  too 
much  soiled  and  mutilated  to  admit  of  a  satisfactory 
copy  being  taken. 

The  signature  affords  a  further  example  of  the 
tremor  of  fraud, — i.e.,  that  tremor  and  uncertainty 
which  result  from  the  slow  motion  of  the  pen  over  the 
paper,  necessary  to  a  hand  unaccustomed  to  writing  a 
signature  when  all  the  minute  details  visible  in  that 
signature  must  be  repeated.  Still  it  would  have  been 
hazardous  to  pronounce  the  name  a  simulated  writing 
in  the  absence  of  genuine  examples  of  the  writing  of 
the  man  whose  signature  it  purports  to  be. 


140  STUDY   OF   HANDWEITING 

Under  a  moderate  magnification  the  continual 
changes  in  the  pressure  of  the  pen  on  the  paper  and 
the  constantly  recurring  deviations  in  the  pen-mark 
are  sufficiently  manifest,  and  with  the  light  which  has 
been  shed  upon  the  history  of  the  signature  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  ascribe  them  to  their  proper  cause. 

But  in  the  absence  of  such  light  it  would  be  claim- 
ing too  much  to  profess  the  ability  to  discriminate  with 
exactness  between  the  halting  and  uncertainty  due  to 
fraud  and  that  due  to  feebleness,  or  illiteracy,  or  other 
unknown  cause. 

The  composite  of  the  name  was  obtained  from  five 
signatures  to  letters  written  long  before  the  period  of 
the  will  (1849-54).  Perhaps  among  the  voluminous 
testimony  taken  in  this  case  the  observation  may  be 
found  that  Mr.  Whitaker  had  adopted  the  habit  of 
writing  his  name  "  R.  Whitaker"  for  a  long  time  be- 
fore the  date  of  the  will,  and  that  during  the  period 
previous  to  this  when  he  wrote  his  name  "  Robert 
"Whitaker"  he  employed  a  final  "  r"  different  in  kind 
from  that  attached  to  the  will.  The  character  in  the 
name  appears  clearly  in  the  composite,  and  differs 
from  that  in  the  signature  entirely. 

Each  name  of  the  signature  was  photographed 
separately  for  a  composite,  and  the  two  were  joined 
by  careful  measurement  of  the  relation  between  the 
names  in  the  genuine  signatures.  The  photographs 
were  made  by  Gal  ton's  process  of  exposures  of  the 
successive   objects    to    the   same   plate,    each   for   its 


f 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  141 

fraction  of  the  time  necessary  for  complete  develop- 
ment. 

This  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  pitfalls  awaiting 
the  forger,  who  usually  leaves  evidences  of  his  unlaw- 
ful work. 

The  dragged  and  manipulated  appearance  of  the 
taj)e  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  stretched  tape 
shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  while  a  close  inspection 
will  reveal  a  scratch  across  the  face  of  the  "  D"  on  the 
seal,  which  played  an  important  part  in  the  trial. 


Wlien  the  composite  has  been  made,  it  should  be 
submitted  to  the  same  measurements  as  the  separate 
signatures,  though  it  will  not  usually  be  found  so 
tractable.  The  portions  of  greatest  value  in  deter- 
mining the  elements  of  the  given  handwriting  are 
those  which  are  the  most  black,  because  these  indi- 
cate the  most  frequent  routes  of  the  pen.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  measure  spaces  between  letters  in  the 
composite,  because  its  dark  kernel  is  broader  and  less 
well  defined  than  the  similar  parts  of  a  single  signa- 
ture, and  it  will  in  fact  often  cover  nearly  as  much 
paper  as  the  space  itself.  In  general,  wherever  a 
column  representing  the  measurements  of  the  same  ele- 
ment in  different  signatures  shows  large  variations  in 
the  numbers,  the  said  element  will  a[>poar  in  the  com- 
posite as  a  broad  blur  or  as  a  nunil)er  of  distinct  lines. 

It  is  advisable  not  to  attempt  to  get  a  measurement 


142  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

thus  obscured  from  the  composite,  but  to  pass  it  by 
and  rely  for  the  expression  of  its  average  on  the 
numerical  mean  obtained  by  measuring  individual 
letters  or  distances  between  them.     In  Plate  VI,  will 

Fig.  12. 


be  found  composites  of  genuine  signatures  of  Isaac 
Taylor,  George  W.  Hawley,  and  Enos  V.  Garrett, 
which  when  compared  with  the  forgeries  of  their 
names  (Fig.  12)  illustrate  the  use  of  the  process  in 
detecting  fraudulent  writing. 

The  signature  of  Thomas  J.  Morris  was  made  from 
twenty-seven  undisputed  examples  written  by  him 
during  a  period  of  eight  or  ten  years.  The  agreement 
in  these  signatures  was  so  great  in  parts  of  the  name 
as  to  almost  amount  to  coincidence.  The  black  line 
represents  the  ideal  of  the  writer's  signature  which  he 
never  attained  entirely  at  any  one  time,  and  the  blur 
indicates  local  and  accidental  deviation  of  individual 
signatures  from  that  ideal. 

It  will  be  understood  from  what  has  been  already 
said  that  the  measurement  of  the  composite  is  not  the 
only,  nor  perhaps  the  most  important  aid  it  can  ren- 
der a  jury  which  is  to  decide  upon  the  falsity  or  genu- 


rLATK    \'I. 


.^l  <^^^  , 


/  Ay^^/^^ ,'^:r/' 


'.4^' 


Zf/^^^, 


J 


:   //f^'  /v^      ^  l^T^-ri^ 


AND    DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  143 

iiieness  of  a  signature.  To  a  jury  it  lurnishes  that 
most  valuable  of  criterions,  an  authentic  pattern  of 
the  ideal  signature,  while  to  the  expert  it  gives  the 
kinds  of  variation,  their  distribution  in  the  separate 
letters,  and  their  limitations.  In  Table  I.  the  agree- 
ment of  the  numerical  and  the  graphic  methods  and 
of  both  with  a  previously  unrecognized  genuine  sig- 
nature is  strikingly  shown. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

"  GUIDED    HANDS." 

Character  of  such  Writing. — Cases  frequently  come 
before  the  court  where  it  is  admitted  that  the  hand  of 
the  person  who  wrote  the  signature  was  guided  by  the 
hand  of  some  one  else. 

The  writing  produced  by  two  hands  conjointly  is 
usually  erratic,  and,  at  first  sight,  hard  to  connect  with 
the  handwriting  of  any  one  person.  In  appearance  it 
changes  abruptly  from  very  high  or  very  wide  to  very 
low  or  very  narrow  letters. 

Theory. — This  is  to  be  explained  by  the  non-agree- 
ment in  phase  of  the  impulses  due  to  each  of  the  two 
writers.  If  both  are  endeavoring  at  the  same  moment 
to  write  a  given  stroke,  the  length  of  that  stroke  will 
be  measured  by  the  sum  of  the  impulses  given  by  the 
two  writers.     If  they  act  in  opposition  to  one  another, 


144  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

one  seeking  to  make  a  down  stroke  while  the  other 
is  trying  to  make  an  up  stroke,  the  result  will  be  a 
line  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  stronger  and 
the  weaker  force. 

As  these  coincidences  and  oppositions  occur  at  irreg- 
ular but  not  infrequent  intervals,  like  the  interference 
and  amplification  phases  of  light  and  sound-waves, 
the  result  traced  on  the  paper  might  be  expected 
in  advance  to  be — and  in  fact  is — a  distorted  writing 
where  maxima  and  minima  of  effect  are  connected 
together  by  longer  or  shorter  lines  of  ordinary  writing. 

The  tabular  statement  by  numerical  average  of  one 
case  will  be  shown  and  more  specifically  explained 
farther  on. 

The  only  state  of  things  which  can  justify  the 
guiding  of  a  hand  executing  a  legal  instrument  is  the 
feebleness  or  illness  of  its  owner. 

Explanations. — When  such  assistance  is  required  it 
is  usually  given  by  passing  the  arm  around  the  body 
of  the  invalid  and  supporting  the  writing  hand  while 
the  necessary  characters  are  being  made. 

Both  participants  in  this  action  are  looking  at  the 
writing,  and  both  are  thinking  of  the  next  letter  which 
must  be  written,  and  of  the  motion  of  the  pen  necessary 
to  produce  it.  Unless  the  executing  hand  were  abso- 
lutely lifeless  or  entirely  devoid  of  power,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  it  not  to  influence  the  guiding  and 
presumably  stronger  hand;  for  the  least  force  exerted 
cannot  fail  to  deflect  a  hand,  however  strong,  in  an 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  145 

unnatural  and  cramped  position.  Nor  can  the  hand 
of  the  guider  fail  to  add  its  contribution  to  the  joint 
effort,  however  much  the  brain  whicli  controls  it  may 
strive  to  render  the  hand  entirely  passive.  Both 
minds  are  busy  with  the  same  act,  and  insensibly  both 
hands  will  write  the  same  letter  with  the  results  just 
described. 

Analysis  of  Guided  'Writing'. — Can  the  character- 
istics of  each  liand  be  separated  from  those  of  the 
other  and  the  relative  amount  of  the  two  contribu- 
tions to  the  joint  signature  be  stated  ? 

This  is  a  question  which  is  naturally  asked  during 
the  trial  of  a  case  involving  the  consideration  of  a 
guided  hand.  From  the  comparatively  small  number 
of  experiments  made  by  the  writer  in  this  direction  it 
would  be  too  hazardous  to  answer  it  in  the  affirmative, 
but  it  may  be  said  that  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
each  band  can  usually  be  made  apparent  by  the  system 
of  measurement,  and  the  indications  seem  to  point  to 
the  probability  of  being  able  to  increase  the  number 
of  characteristics  elicited  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  observations  made.  If  the  significance  of  every 
part  of  every  stroke  could  be  properly  interpreted,  it 
follows  that  a  complete  separation  of  characteristics 
would  be  effected,  but  this  would  require  an  indefi- 
nitely large  number  of  observations  to  be  made  and 
a  quite  unattainable  skill  in  explaining  them. 

Example. — Table  11.  contains  the  data  of  the  study 
of  a  disputed  signature. 

10 


146 


STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 


o 

■g  JO  33[0J1S 

UAvop  jsjg  JO 
aippinijoaiSuv 

VJl 

a>  10U3O 

SS^SS 

5gg 

S 

00 

00 

S  JO  9-![01'\S 

dn  }sjg  JO  aiSuy 

. 

to 

<U    OOin 
p^   CO  ^co 

SSSS3g3 

eoc4co 

S 

8 

I> 

•^  JO  ejjojjs  dn 
pnoo3sjo8[Snv 

«o 

60 

0)  oco«o 

ooooo  o 
■-1      --icoe; 

S5'-'=5 

.    s  • 

s 

•»  JO  ajfoiis 
UAvop  JO  8iSav 

?- 

60             "9 

Q    coco  CO 

§mmSS 

ocoo 

■*COi-0 

o 

o 

■»e6 

o 

■fi.  JO  9310J1S 

dn  5SBI  JO  aiSuv 

«. 

Isss 

SS2SS 

sss 

o 

o 

in 
Oin 

•* 

•«  JO 
a^iojjs    uAvop 
;sBi    JO    aiStiv 

«i 

so 

ai  ooooa 

tOtOiOtCiO 

iC  O  lO 

s 

s 

gg 

CO 

■V  JO  jqSiaH 

to  tc  l~  t~  to 

iC 
!OI>-iO 

to 

in§ 
into' 

IN 

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i>  to  t>  I^  c~ 

to  to  to 

in 

'--- 

to  to 

- 

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in  i^  to  cK  >.iH 

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lO 

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iri 

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inoi 

do 

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isjg  JO  sjansi  8uii 
3A0qB  qqSiaq  aSujaAy 

«  oo-d 

§  d  o  o  i-i  o 

o-|.S 

e 

_d 

OS 

•anil 
aAoqBfl^  jojqStaH 

(N 

i-HOdrHO 

lo 

- 

dd 

00 

■ff  JO  jqSiaH 

l>  t=  I>  CC  t~  ^ 

5ot~to^ 

i-j|J 

in""* 

8 

t~ 

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9  ■"j'ooo 

iOiC        lO 

en  CO  oj  en  ci 
^r  >o*o»c  CO 

-"iJooo 

iCOiO 

in 
ino 

o 

•p— V  qjSnai 

lass 

in 

COC^i-J  COlO 

i.O00I> 

-ji 

in 

in 

s 

•*-* 

lis 

■V-g  qjSuai 

■n 

M  C^  CO  CO  CO 

MCOCO 

CO 

CO 

loS 

co'r4 

Tf 

S—fi  qiSuai 

I— 

t^ootooto 

in 
t>cid 

in 
in 

to' 

CO 

•^— ?  q^Snai 

^  ooocc 

t-  t^  CO  (M  Ci 

cncno 

00 

iC 
00 

s 

r-od 

CO 

•)—r)  qiSuai 

I. .3 

Tf  l^  00  lO  CO 

in 

tor^co 

iOtJI 

id  in 

- 

•v—H  qi3aai 

g   rJiCOCO 

ITS  to  to  i«  us 

in 
■^eoi> 

in 
in 

■s 

in  in 

O 

-•a  . 

<;«;;c;a 

fc. 

a 

W 

u 
> 

1 

AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  147 

Columns  one  to  thirteen  inclusive  refer  to  measure- 
ments between  certain  selected  parts  of  letters,  heights 
of  letters,  etc. 

Columns  fourteen  to  nineteen  inclusive  include  an- 
gular measurements  of  parts  of  letters. 

The  first  three  horizontal  lines  represent  a  name  at 
the  commencement  of  a  will,  the  same  name  as  a  sig- 
nature, and  an  average  of  their  combined  measure- 
ments. The  following  eleven  horizontal  lines  contain 
corresponding  measurements  of  as  many  undisputed 
signatures,  with  their  averages  in  the  lowest  line.  The 
first  things  to  strike  the  eye  are  the  disagreement  in  the 
measurements  of  the  name  and  the  signatures  in  many 
characteristics  and  their  close  agreement  in  others. 
These  facts  alone  would  indicate  that  the  case  was  a 
peculiar  one.  The  variations  between  close  approxi- 
mation or  identity  of  measurement  and  w^ide  diver- 
gence would  lead  one  to  suspect  the  cause  to  have 
been  periodical  perturbation  of  a  normal  liand,  and 
this  view  is  strengthened  when  one  compares  the  num- 
bers representing  the  successive  measurements  of  the 
elements  of  the  disputed  signature  with  the  corre- 
sponding numbers  of  the  undisputed  series. 

In  columns  three,  six,  and  sixteen  the  measure- 
ments of  the  signature  agree  fairly  well  with  the 
averages,  but  in  seventeen,  eighteen,  and  nineteen  (all 
angles),  the  signature  shows  the  widest  discrepancies 
when  compared  with  the  averages  of  the  larger  series. 

There   are   too  many  approximations  between  the 


148  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

two  to  render  it  probable  that  the  signature  was 
made  entirely  independently  of  the  hand  which  made 
the  lower  series,  and  yet  the  wide  divergences  in  a 
large  number  of  the  components  investigated  show 
that  another  force  was  modifying  the  first.  It  had  the 
appearance  of  a  guided  hand,  and  this  appearance  was 
further  confirmed  when  analysis  showed  that  several 
elements  in  the  signature  difi:ered  radically  from 
about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  instances  of  the 
same  elements  in  the  hand  which  was  suspected  of 
having  forged  it,  while  agreeing  very  closely  with 
them  in  the  undisputed  signatures.  This  method 
supported  the  view  (which  was  afterwards  corrob- 
orated by  direct  testimony)  that  the  suspected  signa- 
ture was  produced  by  the  hand  of  the  person  whose 
name  it  indicated,  guided  by  the  hand  suspected 
of  forging  it. 

These  tables  are  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing the  system  by  means  of  which  the  separate  ob- 
servations are  recorded,  combined,  and  employed, 

Plate  VII.  and  Tables  III.  and  IV.  illustrate  an  ex- 
periment in  this  direction.  The  supposititious  name 
"Edwin  S.  Barley"  was  selected,  and  two  persons,  A 
and  B,  practised  writing  it  for  some  time,  in  order  to 
attain  some  facility,  at  least  remotely  resembling  that 
which  every  one  has  in  writing  his  own  name. 

In  Experiment  I.,  Plate  VII.,  the  name  was  written 
freely  by  A.  In  the  group  of  three  experiments,  II., 
ff,  b,  and  c,  B  supported  the  elbow  of  A  while  the 


PLATE   VII. 


II.  Group,  b 


III.  Group,  h  \      cf-C?ti<^-*-^>->'«-^    <^.      Ui?^?>«i>^^5^ 

IV-  Group.  6  j     <^^J^c.u-Zn^^  'Cf'  <^^k.^^^f/ 


V.  Group.  6 


VI.  Group 


VII.  Group.  /< 


VIII. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  149 

latter  wrote  the  name  ;  both  A  and  B,  however,  in 
this,  as  in  all  but  the  first  and  last  experiments,  to- 
gether kept  their  attention  fixed  upon  the  writing. 

In  the  group  of  three  experiments,  III.,  a,  b,  and  c, 
the  middle  of  the  forearm  of  A  was  grasped  by  B. 

In  the  Group  IV.,  «,  b,  and  c,  the  forearm  was 
grasped  and  supported  immediately  behind  the  wrist. 

In  the  Group  V.,  a,  b,  and  e,  the  wrist  itself  was 
grasped  and  supported  and  its  motion  largely  hin- 
dered. 

In  the  Group  VI.,  «,  b,  and  e,  the  hand  itself  was 
tightly  grasped,  the  wrist  motion  entirely  prevented, 
and  only  the  fingers  and  the  arm  left  free  to  move. 

In  VIL,  a,  b,  and  c,  the  hand  and  fingers  were 
tightly  held  and  free  motion  only  allowed  to  the  arm. 

In  VIII.,  B  wrote  the  name  without  assistance  or 
interference  from  A. 

The  signature  was  then  examined,  and  seventeen 
elements  selected  for  measurement,  which  are  indi- 
cated at  the  heads  of  the  seventeen  columns  ruled 
on  the  paper. 

The  first  seven  columns  refer  to  horizontal  distances 
in  millimeters  between  certain  parts  of  letters.  The 
succeeding  five  columns  give  the  heights  of  as  many 
letters  selected  from  the  rest,  because  it  was  thought 
that  they  would  give  more  significant  indications  as  to 
character. 

The  last  five  data  refer  to  angles  with  the  horizontal, 
or  slopes  of  the  letters. 


150 


STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 


h-;   ^ 


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1 

AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY. 


151 


S 


's 
CD 

e 


EH       . 


^ 


<2) 


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'j  JO  aiSuv 


•inajs 

lUVVl 

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Cl        IM        <N        ci 


00  ,-1  T).  — I 


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UAVOp 

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o      i^      CO      ira 


M        .-•        .-I        ,-1        CI 


•9JTOJ5S 
3U0[ 

'p  JO  aiSuv 


"3" 


CO         O         CO        CO 
CO         CO        CO        CO 


iC        lO        lO        CD 


CO        lO        CO        .-( 


lO       lO       o 


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t» 

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CO     N     i>     — I 


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CO        CO        QO        00        O        lO 


•n—^ 


■fl—v 


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s—s 


S        00        00        00        -H        t-.' 
«        IM       C<       d       CO       «<I 


Oi       1-1       _. 
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COOiOOO-^'MCI 


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3  O        1-1        lO        >-l        lO  lO 


a  CO  00     lo     CO     S     in 


•p-a^ 


CO        CO        CO 


ainoocOeooiHco 
gicooo6r*o6o>irico 


152  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

To  prevent  the  error  which  would  be  likely  to  re- 
sult from  considering  but  one  series  of  measurements 
for  each  of  the  seven  cases  just  described,  all  but  the 
first  and  last  were  repeated  three  times,  and  the  aver- 
ages of  these  triple  measurements  were  taken  as  single 
observations  and  compared  with  each  other  and  with  the 
single  signatures  at  the  commencement  and  the  close. 

The  resulting  figures  are  complicated,  but  in  general 
they  show  the  greatest  divergences  from  the  type  fur- 
nished by  each  of  the  experimenters  in  the  middle 
spaces  III.,  IV.,  V.,  and  VL,  or  where  the  motions  of 
both  A  and  B  had  the  greatest  freedom  ;  and  the  least 
divergence  in  the  spaces  nearest  to  the  type  signatures. 

Summary. — If  the  average  of  Experiment  VII. 
(Table  III.)  be  compared  in  numerical  results  with 
that  of  the  free-hand  Experiment  VIII.,  it  will  be  seen 
that  about  half  of  the  results  differ  by  less  than  fifteen 
per  cent. 

To  be  more  accurate,  they  are  as  follows,  counting 
the  seventeen  columns  from  left  to  right:  0.11,  0.17, 
0.33,  0.04,  0.22,  0.006,  0.019,  0.011,  0.31,  0.30,  0.002, 
0.015,  0.32,  0.78,  0.14,  0.27,  0.15.  Eight  out  of  the 
seventeen  results  differ  by  fifteen  per  cent.,  or  less, 
whereas  the  results  in  the  middle  space  III.,  IV. ^  and 
V.  differ  in  almost  every  case  by  much  more  than 
fifteen  per  cent.,  which  has  been  arbitrarily  assumed 
as  the  maximum  variation  to  be  generally  allowed  be- 
tween any  genuine  signature  and  the  average  of  a 
number  of  them. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  153 

Table  IV.  gives  only  the  averages  mentioned  on 
Table  III.,  omitting  the  separate  measurements  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  greater  simplicity. 

The  greatest  diiFerences  between  Series  VII.  and 
Vni.  are  found  in  the  angles  representing  slopes  of 
the  letters  or  inclination  to  a  horizontal  line. 

This  is  an  additional  instance  of  the  value  of  this 
element  in  determining  normal  signatures. 

Note. — Since  this  book  was  in  press  the  daily  papers  report  some 
testimony  of  an  expert  in  a  case  of  guided  handwriting. 

Whether  or  not  it  be  considered  established  that  with  care  the  ele- 
ments of  each  handwriting  can  be  proven  in  the  guided  signature,  the 
expert's  opinion  was  certainly  premature  if  he  were  correctly  re- 
ported as  stating  that  "it  was  impossible  for  a  person  holding  an- 
other's hand  to  infuse  the  character  of  the  guider's  hand  into  the 
writing."     (See  Philadelphia  Evening  Telegraphy  May  22,  1894. 


PART    II. 
CHEMICAL    EXAMINATION. 


CHAPTER    XVL 

THE    TESTING   OF   INKS. 

Objects  in  Vie^w. — The  testing  of  inks  on  docu- 
ments may  have  for  its  object  the  decision  as  to 
whether  two  different  ink-marks  give  the  same  re- 
actions ;  whether  certain  substances  are  contained  in 
an  ink;  or  which  of  two  crossed  lines  is  the  upper 
one.  These  and  a  variety  of  other  questions  belong 
to  the  chemical  part  of  an  expert's  duties,  and  are  here 
to  be  considered  by  themselves.  It  is  evident  that,  in 
an  important  document,  it  is  out  of  the  question  to 
think  of  making  a  quantitative  analysis  of  an  ink. 
To  do  so  would  destroj^  the  document,  and  even  if  by 
this  means  a  satisfactory  analysis  could  be  made  (which 
is  doubtful)  it  would  be  at  too  great  a  sacrifice.  But  it 
is  not  likely  that  a  satisfactory  quantitative  analysis  of 
the  ink  could  be  made  from  the  extremely  thin  and 
dried  films  of  its  marks  on  paper,  for  whether  mechan- 

154 


DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  155 

ical  or  chemical  means  were  used  to  collect  it,  the  sub- 
stance examined  would  always  be  rendered  impure  by 
the  material  derived  from  the  surface  of  the  paper, 
which  could  not  be  entirely  separated  from  it. 

Some  constituents  of  inks  are  volatile,  and  conse- 
quently the  result  attained  by  an  ultimate  analysis  of 
the  material  which  could  be  secured  from  a  dried  piece 
of  writing  would  be  but  little  more  precise  in  sug- 
gesting the  original  constitution  of  the  ink  than  such 
qualitative  tests  as  may  be  conducted  without  injur}-  to 
the  document  as  a  record. 

Importance  of  photographing  the  Document. — 
"While  it  is  perfectly  true,  as  has  been  said  before  in 
this  work,  that  a  good  photographic  copy  should  be 
made  of  every  document  before  it  is  submitted  to 
chemical  examination,  the  latter  is  far  from  the 
dangerous  process  which  judges  and  opposing  counsel 
sometimes  seem  to  consider  it. 

Plea  for  Proper  Chemical  Testing. — It  is  frequently 
remarkable  to  observe  with  what  equanimity  the  court 
can  see  an  important  document  soiled  by  dirty  fingers, 
folded  and  sometimes  torn,  pricked  with  pins,  and 
adorned  with  "Exhibit"  marks,  while  it  forbids  the 
application  of  a  minute  drop  of  a  reagent  to  the  ink  or 
paper  of  which  the  eflects  could  onh-  be  seen  by  a 
magnitying-glass,  and  which  would  have  some  real 
value  in  the  establishment  of  the  truth :  as  if  the  act 
of  testing  chemically  we're  a  sacrilege.  This  prejudice 
of  the    court    against    permitting   a    document    to  be 


156  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

chemically  tested  seems  not  to  be  shared  to  the  same 
extent  abroad. 

If  the  truth  is  to  be  elicited  some  liberty  is  to  be 
allowed  the  expert,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  he 
should  be  permitted  to  mutilate  or  destroy  the  paper. 
On  the  contrary,  in  dealing  with  valuable  documents 
none  should  be  allowed  to  apply  tests  of  any  kind  but 
those  known  to  have  the  necessary  experience  to  do 
so  safely,  and  those  who  have  a  respect  for  records. 

The  tests  applicable  to  a  writing  are  necessarily 
qualitative, — that  is,  they  are  exclusively  directed  to 
determining  the  presence  of  a  substance  and  not  to  the 
quantity  of  that  substance  Avhich  exists  in  the  ink. 
The  proof  of  the  presence  of  a  substance  is  obtained 
by  the  reactions  it  gives,  which  are  in  these  cases  usu- 
ally changes  of  color  or  shade  on  the  application  of  the 
testing  substance.  It  is  not  necessary  that  this  should 
be  effected  over  any  considerable  surface  of  the  ink- 
mark  tested.  An  exceedingly  small  drop  applied  on  a 
fine  point  to  a  given  part  of  an  ink  line,  and  then  ex- 
amined carefully  under  the  magnifying-glass,  will  give 
the  same  assurance  of  the  presence  of  a  component  as 
would  the  entire  document  if  immersed  in  the  reagent. 
It  is  seldom  necessary  to  effect  so  great  a  change  as  to  be 
remarked  by  a  casual  glance  at  the  document.  Never- 
theless, it  in  no  way  invalidates  the  authenticity  of  a 
document  if  the  color  of  parts  of  a  few  letters  has 
been  changed,  especially  if  the  exact  parts  of  the  docu- 
ment to  which  reagents  have  been  applied  are  noted, 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  157 

and  can  be  recognized  and  testified  to  by  the  expert 
who  makes  the  experiment.  Nor  does  it  deprive  the 
expert  who  is  studying  the  character  of  handwriting 
of  the  opportunity  to  pursue  his  investigation  if  the 
lines  he  is  following  are  occasionally  mottled  with 
colors  different  from  that  of  the  ordinary  ink,  so  long 
as  the  lines  remain  in  other  respects  as  distinct  as 
before.  This  should  generallj-  be  the  case,  but  there 
are  tests  which  leave  the  ink  spread  out  in  little  blots 
where  the  reagent  has  been  applied.  Tests  like  these 
should  be  avoided  wherever  possible,  and  when  they 
must  be  undertaken  the  amount  of  the  reagent  should 
be  as  small  as  is  consistent  with  a  proper  observation 
of  the  reaction. 

For  the  purpose  of  examining  inks  upon  written 
documents,  the  following  are  the  reagents  which  it  will 
usually  be  found  sufficient  to  employ  : 

Reagents  Desirable. — Oxalic  acid,  three  per  cent, 
solution  ;  citric  or  tartaric  acid,  ten  per  cent,  solution  ; 
hydrochloric  acid,  ten  per  cent.;  sulphuric  acid,  tifteen 
per  cent. ;  nitric  acid,  twenty  per  cent. ;  a  solution  of 
one  part  tin  chloride,  one  part  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
ten  parts  of  distilled  water ;  saturated  solution  of  sul- 
phurous acid  ;  four  per  cent,  solution  of  gold  chlo- 
ride ;  a  solution  of  sodium  hyposulphite  one  i>art, 
ammonia  one  part,  and  distilled  water  ten  parts  ;  a 
solution  (which  should  always  be  freshly  made)  of 
potassium  ferrocyanide  one  part,  hydrochloric  acid 
one  part,  and  distilled  water  ten  parts  ;  a  solution  of 


158  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

potassium  sulphocjanate  one  part,  hydrochloric  acid 
one  part,  and  distilled  water  ten  parts  ;  a  four  per 
cent,  solution  in  distilled  water  of  sodium  hydrate  ; 
a  two  per  cent,  solution  of  chlorinated  lime  ;  some 
crystals  of  iodine ;  absolute  alcohol ;  aqua  ammonia, 
and  distilled  water. 

Convenient  Form  of  Apparatus. — The  writer  finds 
it  convenient  to  arrange  these  reagents  in  a  portable 
case,  of  which  a  representation  is  given  in  Plate  VI., 
Figs.  5  and  6. 

The  little  reagent-bottles,  each  containing  about 
twenty  cubic  centimeters,  are  held  in  separate  compart- 
ments, on  two  sides  of  a  double  strip,  hinged  at  the 
top.  In  carrying,  the  two  strips  are  pressed  together 
and  slipped  into  the  grooves  on  the  ends  of  the  outside 
case ;  while  in  use,  the  strips  are  separated  and  rested 
on  the  table,  when  they  are  ready  at  hand.  A  broad 
pocket  extending  over  the  entire  length  of  the  outside 
case  is  useful  for  carrying  the  glass  rods,  feathers, 
pens,  etc.,  necessary  for  applying  the  reagents. 

Manner  of  testing. — Strips  of  clean,  white  blotting- 
paper  should  always  be  provided  before  commencing 
the  examination. 

If  the  document  be  very  old  or  the  ink  with  which 
it  is  written  very  pale,  it  is  well  to  apply  a  drop  of 
distilled  water  to  the  place  where  the  reagent  has 
been  applied,  and  as  soon  as  sufficient  time  has  been 
allowed  to  judge  of  the  reaction,  to  remove  the  surplus 
fluid  at  once  by  means  of  the  blotting-paper. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  159 

According  to  Hager  and  Holdermann  ^  the  most 
frequently  employed  black  inks  are  prepared  from 
the  following  substances : 

Constitution  of  the  Principal  Inks. — 1.  Gallo-tannic 
acid  (nutgalls),  copperas,  gum  arabic  (with  or  without 
acetic  acid  or  wood  vinegar).  This  ink  is  generally 
called  nutgall  ink. 

2.  Alizarine  ink  is  prepared  like  that  of  nutgalls, 
but  receives  an  addition  of  indigo-carmine,  or  a  solu- 
tion in  water  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid  to  which  iron 
has  been  added. 

3.  Nutgall  ink  with  logwood  is  prepared  like  nut- 
gall  ink,  but  instead  of  water  a  decoction  of  logwood 
is  employed. 

4.  Logwood  ink  (with  potassium  chromate)  is  pre- 
pared with  one  thousand  parts  of  a  decoction  of  log- 
wood and  one  part  of  potassium  chromate. 

5.  Unknown  inks  are  brought  into  commerce  under 
different  names,  but  are  chiefly  prepared  from  log- 
wood infusions  with  various  salts  (such  as,  for  instance, 
cupric  chloride). 

6.  Copying-inks  consist  mostly  of  the  foregoing 
inks,  with  glycerin  and  an  addition  of  sugar,  or  they 
are  prepared  from  solution  of  extract  of  logwood, 
with  the  addition  of  alum,  blue  vitriol,  glycerin,  in- 
digo-carmine, etc. 

7.  Aniline  inks  are  prepared  from  aniline  colors. 

^  Hager's  Untersuchungen,  etc.,  Dr.  H.  Hager  and  E.  Holder- 
mann.    Leipzig  :  Ernst  Giinther's  Verlag,  1888. 


160  STUDY  OF    HANDWRITING 

General  Considerations. — It  is  often  important  to 
know  the  constitution  of  these  universally  employed 
inks,  and  to  pay  attention  to  them  in  the  examination 
of  supposed  forgeries. 

The  testing  of  a  writing  demands  every  precaution, 
for  often  only  one  written  letter,  a  simple  stroke,  con- 
stitutes the  object  of  the  examination,  and  it  must  be 
proved  from  this  stroke  whether  it  has  been  made 
with  other  ink  than  that  used  in  the  rest  of  the  docu- 
ment. Again,  sometimes  the  proof  must  be  furnished 
whether  a  written  character  is  of  later  date  than  the 
remainder  of  the  document. 

When  it  concerns  important  documents,  and  es- 
pecially in  legal  cases,  as  has  been  reiterated,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  have  a  photographic  copy  taken  of  the 
writing,  or  the  suspected  part  of  the  writing. 

Preliminary  Investigation. — At  the  commencement 
of  the  investigation  one  should  use  a  lens  or  a  magni- 
fying-glass  in  order  to  determine  whether  several  ad- 
jacent characters  have  been  apparently  made  with  the 
same  ink.  .They  should  be  viewed  with  a  magnify- 
ing-glass  in  reflected  and  transmitted  light  in  order  to 
recognize  a  variation  in  color,  lustre,  or  thickness  of 
the  ink-film.  Many  inks  blot  on  bad  paper, — that  is, 
the  written  characters  surround  themselves  with  a 
paler  border ;  other  inks  which  contain,  for  example, 
much  gum  do  not  possess  this  characteristic. 

The  lens  determines  this  easily,  but  it  must  not  be 
overlooked  that  many  papers  are  badly  sized,  or  have 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  161 

individual  spots  which  are  not  sufficiently  sized,  and 
hence  cause  the  ink  to  flow.  An  ink  rich  in  gum,  or 
an  ink  concentrated  by  evaporation  in  an  inkstand, 
gives  a  more  lustrous  and  thicker  stroke.  Many  inks 
sink  deeper  into  the  material  written  on,  so  that  the 
character  can  be  seen  and  observed  on  the  other  side 
of  the  paper  with  the  lens.  At  the  place  where  written 
characters  cross,  and  these  written  characters  have  been 
made  at  different  times,  or  with  different  inks,  it  can 
often  be  recognized,  with  the  aid  of  a  lens,  which  char- 
acter lies  under  or  over  the  other,  and  therefore  which 
was  made  first  or  last.  If  it  be  necessary  to  employ  the 
microscope,  a  magnifying-power  of  tenfold  linear 
measure  with  a  lateral  illuminating  lens  is  generally 
strong  enough. 

Next  comes  the  use  of  reagents. 

Oxalic  Acid  (C^HjO^  -j-  2Ati). — With  a  soft  quill  or 
gold  pen  which  has  been  dipped  in  solution  of  oxalic 
acid  (one  part  acid  to  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  of  dis- 
tilled water),  minute  dots  are  made  oh,  or  cross- 
strokes  are  made  through  the  broader  and  narrower 
parts  of  some  of  the  written  characters,  and  these  are 
examined  by  the  naked  eye  after  drying,  and  with  the 
lens.  With  iron-holding  inks  a  fading  or  paling  will 
occur  more  quickly  in  fresh  writings,  and  more  slowl}- 
in  old  writings.  Fresh  characters  traced  in  nutgall 
ink  one  or  two  days  before  the  observation  disappear 
under  oxalic  acid  easily,  or  become  light  gray;  older 

11 


162  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

characters  become  a  little  paler  or  gray,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  nutgall  ink  with  logwood ;  the  charac- 
ters written  with  alizarine  ink  become  by  solution  of 
oxalic  acid  bluish  or  blue ;  characters  made  with  log- 
wood inks,  on  the  other  hand,  orange  red,  raspberry 
red,  or  brownish  red.  Aniline  ink  is  not  materially 
changed. 

Hydrochloric  Acid  (HCl). — Hereupon  the  pen  is 
dipped  in  twelve  and  a  half  per  cent,  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  strokes  are  made  as  before  through  separate 
parts  of  the  writing,  and  allowed  to  dry  without  warm- 
ing. "Writings  of  nutgall  ink,  if  not  more  than  a  day 
old,  become  yellow ;  if  older,  yellowish-gray ;  those 
with  nutgall  ink  containing  logwood,  reddish  or  red- 
dish-gray; with  alizarine  ink,  greenish;  logwood  inks, 
more  or  less  red ;  aniline  ink,  more  or  less  reddish  or 
brownish-gray. 

Ammonium  Hydrate  (x^H^OH). — This  substance, 
known  in  commerce  simply  as  ammonia  or  hartshorn, 
is  one  of  the  three  strongest  alkalis.  It  is  preferable 
as  a  reagent  to  potassium  or  sodium  hydrates,  because 
it  is  entirely  volatile,  and  any  excess  which  may  be  left 
on  the  substance  to  which  it  is  applied  may  be  entirely 
expelled  by  moderate  heat.  Ammonium  hydrate  is 
very  subject  to  the  capillary  action  of  the  paper,  and 
runs  over  a  large  space  Outside  of  that  to  which  it  is 
applied.     The  use  of  parallel  strips  of  blotting-paper 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  163 

is  to  be  recommended  when  it  is  applied  to  a  written 
instrument. 

In  moist  ammoniacal  air,  or  by  touching  with 
caustic  ammonia,  the  places  in  the  writing  which 
have  been  changed  in  color  by  acids  become  darker 
(even  blackish  violet,  like  the  logwood  inks),  fre- 
quently with  blurred  outlines;  but  the  writings  least 
of  all  or  not  at  all  darkened  are  those  made  with 
nutgall  ink  and  bleached  by  acids. 

Potassium  Perrocyanide. — Ferrocyanogen  forms 
with  most  metals  compounds  insoluble  in  water,  and 
usually  exhibiting  characteristic  colors.  Its  com- 
pound with  iron,  even  when  an  infinitesimal  amount 
of  the  latter  is  present  as  a  sesquioxide  or  sesqui-salt, 
produces  an  intense  blue — Prussian  blue — which  is 
not  effected  by  hydrochloric  acid,  but  is  dissolved  by 
potassium  hydrate. 

In  using  this  reagent  on  a  document  for  the  purpose 
of  proving  the  presence  of  iron  in  the  ink  unusual 
precautions  are  necessary.  In  the  first  place,  as  has 
been  stated  in  the  remarks  on  the  constitution  of 
paper,  a  small  drop  of  the  reagent  should  be  applied 
to  the  paper  of  the  document  at  parts  where  there  is 
no  ink,  and  left  there  for  a  minute.  If  no  change  of 
color  take  place,  the  drop  should  be  removed  by  soft 
blotting-paper,  and  its  traces  still  further  obliterated 
by  successive  drops  of  distilled  water  on  the  same 
spot  also  removed  by  blotting-paper. 


164  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

The  reagent  should  then  bo  applied  in  a  minute 
drop  to  the  ink.  If,  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  seconds 
no  change  of  color  appear  in  the  drops  or  on  the  paper 
under  it,  the  solution  should  be  removed  by  bibulous 
paper,  and  the  place  washed  by  successive  drops  of 
distilled  water,  which  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for 
an  equal  time,  and  removed  in  the  same  way.  If  the 
solution  be  exposed  to  the  light  and  air  it  will  sufier 
decomposition,  and  part  of  its  iron  contents  will  fur- 
nish the  very  reaction  for  iron  which  is  sought  in  the 
material  to  which  it  is  applied. 

Documents  which  have  been  tested  by  the  reagent 
without  having  been  subsequently  freed  from  it,  as 
above  suggested,  invariably  exhibit  blue  spots  which 
ignorant  or  designing  persons  may  ascribe  to  reactions 
with  the  iron  in  the  ink  or  paper  when  no  such  iron 
was  present. 

While  this  reagent  is  invaluable,  it  requires  more 
care  than  all  the  rest  to  avoid  leaving  a  stain  on  the 
document.  It  should  not  be  applied  in  drops  broader 
than  the  ink  lines  it  is  meant  to  test,  but  in  very  minute 
drops  lying  wholly  within  the  lines,  and  the  reaction, 
if  any,  should  be  observed  with  a  glass  magnifying  four 
or  five  diameters.  If  no  reaction  for  iron  is  observed 
on  the  blank  paper,  while  a  reaction  is  seen  when  the 
reagent  touches  the  ink,  the  proof  that  the  color  is 
due  to  the  iron  in  the  ink  is  con^^ncing.^ 

^  An  actual  instance  where  this  test  proved  of  great  value  was  in 
the  Whitaker  will  trial. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  165 

Potassium  Sulphocyanate  (^KCN^S). — This  reagent 
when  aciduhited,  as  recommended  in  the  table  of 
reagents,  or,  indeed,  in  all  but  distinctly  alkaline  solu- 
tions of  iron  sesquioxide  salts,  produces  in  them  an 
intense  red  color,  although  not  a  precipitate. 

This  test  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  in  qualitative 
chemistry,  and,  in  the  absence  of  molybdenum  dioxide 
and  hyponitric  acid  (of  which  the  presence  in  the  sub- 
ject of  examination  is  excluded),  is  convincing  as  to 
the  presence  of  iron  in  the  ink.  Indeed,  its  very  deli- 
cacy, which  takes  note  of  the  adventitious  existence  of 
the  minutest  particles  of  ferriferous  substances  in 
paper  or  ink,  is  almost  a  drawback  to  the  formation 
of  an  opinion  when  it  gives  the  reaction  for  iron ;  l)ut 
when  even  this  substance  fails  to  show  the  slightest 
trace  of  iron,  it  is  useless  to  seek  proof  of  such  a  trace 

A  will,  purporting  to  have  been  made  by  Robert  Whitaker,  on  the 
7th  of  May,  1875  (a  copy  of  the  last  page  of  which  will  be  found 
among  the  illustrations  of  this  book),  was  presented  for  probate  upon 
his  death  in  1878.  The  appearance  of  the  ink  with  which  the  signa- 
tures were  written  was  of  that  peculiar  reddish-brown  assumed  by 
iron  inks  after  the  lapse  of  several  years.  If  it  were  an  iron  ink, 
therefore,  it  must  give,  with  potassium  ferrocyanide,  the  blue  color 
characteristic  of  this  element.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  gave  no  reac- 
tion for  iron,  it  was  no  common  writing  fluid,  but  a  coloring  matter 
chosen  to  imitate  an  oxidized  iron  ink.  So  thought  the  writer,  who 
was  requested  to  examine  the  will,  and  preparations  were  made  to  test 
this.  The  writing  fluid  was  proved  to  be  an  unusual  one  containing 
no  iron  but  simulating  old  iron  ink,  and  it  was  stated  to  bo  probably 
Winsor  and  Newton's  brown,  which  was  subsequently  corroborated 
by  the  confession  of  the  forgers. 


166  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

by  any  other.  It  has  also  the  advantage  over  potas- 
sium ferrocyanide  of  not  containing  iron  within  itself, 
which  may  by  internal  change  produce  the  very  re- 
action it  is  employed  to  show  in  other  substances. 

Tartaric  Acid  (C^HgOg  =  HoT). — That  of  commerce 
is  sufficiently  pure  for  purposes  of  testing.  It  is  to  be 
kept  as  a  powder  and  a  solution  made  when  required, 
for  it  decomposes  by  exposure  to  light  and  air,  as  can 
be  observed  when  a  white  film  forms  on  its  upper 
surface. 

Citric  Acid  (CgHgOy  =  HgCi). — Like  tartaric  acid,  is 
useful  in  preventing  sesquioxide  of  iron  solutions 
from  precipitation  by  alkalis ;  it  dissolves  sesquioxide 
of  iron,  and  therefore  bleaches  an  ink  of  which  the 
dried  film  contains  this  substance. 

Sulphuric  Acid  (HjSO^). — The  reactions  of  this 
most  powerful  of  all  the  acid  reagents  are  too  well 
known  to  need  recapitulation  here.  It  readily  dis- 
solves the  sesqui-salts  of  iron  in  an  ink-film  and  pro- 
duces characteristic  color  reactions  with  the  various 
inks. 

Nitric  Acid  (IINO3)  is  equally  with  the  preceding 
well  known  to  chemists  and  non-chemists.  It  is  a 
powerful  oxidizing  agent  and  solvent,  and  its  salts  are 
generally  easily  soluble  in  distilled  water. 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  167 

Acidified  Tin  Bichloride  (SnClg.HCl).— This  is  a 
powerful  deoxidizing  or  reducing  agent. 

It  extracts  the  oxygen  present  in  the  ink-film,  and 
breaks  up  the  compounds,  while  the  free  hydrochloric 
acid  removes  the  iron. 

This  reagent  is  difficult  to  preserve  for  use,  and 
should  be  made  when  needed.  It  should  be  kept 
in  a  well-stoppered  bottle  slightly  acidulated  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  some  metallic  tin  should  be 
added.  Its  tendency  is  to  form  tin  perchloride,  which 
destroys  its  value  as  a  reagent. 

Gold  Terchloride  (AuClg). — This  solution  is  used  as 
a  strong  oxidizing  agent.  In  the  act  of  raising  the 
stage  of  oxidation  it  precipitates  metallic  gold  as  a 
reddish-brown  powder. 

It  is  not  so  subject  to  change  in  the  reagent-bottle 
as  the  substances  just  considered. 

Ammoniacal  Sodium  Hyposulphite  (Xa.^SjOj-f- 
NH4OH  +  Aq). — This  well-known  reagent,  employed 
extensively  in  photography,  has  powerful  reducing  prop- 
erties, and  reacts  on  the  various  constituents  of  inks 
with  characteristic  color  effects  noted  in  the  table  at 
the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Sodium  Hydrate  (N'aOH). — This  is  one  of  the  two 
strongest  alkalis,  and  is  employed  both  for  neutral- 
izing acids  previously  applied  to  portions  of  the  paper, 


168  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

and  for  its  decomposition  and  color-indications  on  the 
materials  to  which  it  is  applied.     (See  table.) 

Chlorinated  Lime  (CaOClg). — This  is  simply  the 
bleaching  powder  of  commerce  dissolved  in  water. 
It  has  a  bleaching  and  an  oxidizing  effect,  the  two 
being  due  to  the  same  characteristic,  the  release  of 
oxygen  by  the  free  chlorine  and  the  destruction  of 
coloring  matter  by  the  former.  Like  all  the  other  re- 
agents, but  with  greater  reason  than  for  any  but  strong 
sulphuric  and  nitric  acid,  it  should  not  be  left  in  con- 
tact with  the  document  longer  than  is  necessary  for 
the  observation  of  the  reaction,  otherwise  it  is  liable 
to  destroy  the  paper  w^ith  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

Iodine  (I^ — crystals). — This  element  is  volatile,  even 
at  ordinary  temperature,  and  is  characterized  by  its 
strong  blue  color  when  brought  in  contact  with  starch. 
Its  uses  are  more  particularly  set  forth  in  the  two 
succeeding  chapters.  This  reaction  was  supposed  to 
be  merely  physical,  but  the  best  authorities  now  regard 
it  as  a  true  chemical  combination,  and  Mylius  finds  it 
to  contain  eighteen  per  cent,  of  iodine,  of  which  part 
is  hydrogen  iodide,  and  gives  the  formula  (C24H^o02ol4) 
HI  (Sadtler). 

Alcohol  (C2H5(OII)). — The  use  of  this  substance  as  a 
test  on  portions  of  a  paper  where  writing  has  been 
erased,  and  the  bare  place  has  been  re-sized  by  means 
of  resin,  soap,  and  paste,  or  other  like  substances,  has 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  169 

been  already  alluded  to.  Besides  this,  however,  it  is 
of  value  in  causing  the  reappearance  of  writing  which 
has  been  rendered  invisible,  as  described  in  the  ex- 
periments of  Chevallier  and  Lassaigne  in  a  succeeding 
page.  Care  is  necessary  in  using  alcohol  on  docu- 
ments on  account  of  its  strong  tendency  to  spread  and 
run  over  a  large  area  of  tlie  sheet,  carrying  its  stain 
and  coloring  materials  to  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  spot  to  be  tested.  Where  this  would  interfere 
with  the  investigation,  it  is  recommended  to  place 
strips  of  blotting-paper  on  either  side  of  and  close  to 
the  spot  to  be  treated  with  alcohol,  and  to  press  them 
firmly  upon  the  document  before  applying  the  small 
drop  of  alcohol  between  them. 

Superposition  in  Crossed  Lines. — To  distinguish 
the  ages  of  two  ink-films  which  cross  each  other, 
whether,  for  instance,  a  crossing-out,  a  writing,  or  a 
blot  was  first  made  (if  nutgall  was  the  ink  used),  the 
place  is  touched  with  a  brush  dipped  in  the  above- 
named  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  because  it  can  be  as- 
sumed that  the  upper  ink-film  will  lileach  sooner  than 
the  under  and  older,  which  has  penetrated  deeper  into 
the  paper  fibres.  If  a  logwood  ink  has  been  used  for 
crossing  out,  it  can  be  made  to  disappear  by  touching 
with  ammonia.  If  the  overlying  ink  is  nutgall  ink,  and 
the  writing  logwood,  the  proper  place  should  be  re- 
peatedly moistened  with  oxalic  acid  or  solution  of 
fluoride  of  potassium  acidified  hy  sulphuric  acid  until 


170  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

it  has  become  so  pale  that  the  lower  writhig  can  be 
read. 

During  this  operation  the  moistened  part  should  be 
frequently  observed  in  a  good  light.  If  the  ink-film  to 
be  removed  is  very  thin,  and  if  the  writing  covered 
by  it  consists  of  fine  strokes,  it  is  recommended  to 
saturate  blotting-paper  with  the  acid  or  the  ammonia 
and  by  tapping  and  pressing  upon  it  to  take  up  the 
ink-film.  When  the  covering  ink-film  is  removed,  if 
the  writing  be  more  or  less  attacked,  it  is  allowed  to 
dry  without  warming.  In  the  case  of  nutgall  inks,  it 
is  touched  with  a  small  quantity  of  a  solution  of  gallic 
acid,  and  in  the  case  of  logwood  ink  with  very  dilute 
solution  of  chloride  of  copper,  and  is  allowed  to  dry 
without  warming. 

Approximate  Age  of  Writing. — To  assist  in  deter- 
mining the  ages  of  writings  by  one  and  the  same  ink, 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  older  the  writing  the 
less  soluble  it  is  in  dilute  ammonia.  If  the  writing  be 
lightly  touched  with  a  brush  dipped  in  ten  per  cent, 
ammonia,  the  later  writing  will  always  give  up  more 
or  less  soluble  matter  to  the  ammonia  before  the  earlier. 
In  case  of  inks  of  different  kinds  this  test  is  not  ser- 
viceable, for  characters  written  in  logwood  ink,  for 
instance,  will  always  give  up  their  soluble  material 
sooner  than  nutgall  inks,  even  if  the  last  named  be 
later  applied.  To  estimate  the  age  of  writing  from 
the  amount  of  bleaching  in  a  given  time  by  hydro- 
chloric or  oxalic  acid  is  very  precarious,  because  the 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  171 

thickness  of  the  ink-film  in  a  written  character  is  not 
always  the  same,  and  the  acid  bleaches  the  thinner 
layer  sooner  than  the  thicker. 

(See  later  to  determine  the  age  of  a  writing  accord- 
ing to  Carre.) 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

hager's  method.^ 

Reagents  used  by  Forgers. — The  forging  of  papers 
or  the  removal  of  written  characters  occurs,  accord- 
ing to  experience,  in  two  ways.  Either  by  erasure  or 
by  washing  with  chemical  reagents. 

The  erased  place  is  usually  covered  by  rubbing  with 
sandarach  powder,  an  alum  powder,  or  a  partial  sizing. 

To  the  chemical  washing  reagents  belong  oxalic 
acid,  citric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  potassium  oxalate, 
chlorine,  chlorinated  lime  solution,  and  acid  sodium 
sulphite.  For  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  forgery  of 
writing  of  this  kind,  observe  the  surface  of  the  paper, 
whether  it  is  rough  or  smooth,  whether  the  particular 
place  exhibit  any  difference  in  reflected  and  in  trans- 
mitted light,  as  well  as  by  feeling  with  tlie  fingers. 
The  place  in  question  is  either  rough  or  smooth,  or 
rubbed  with  the  previously-mentioned  powders,  or  it 
possesses  a  greater  transparency  and  is  thinner. 


^  Hager's  Untersuchungen,  Zweiter  Band :    Leipzig,  Ernst  Giin- 
thers  Verlag,  1888. 


172  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

In  hand-made  paper  (which  at  present  is  l^ut  rarely 
met  witli,  and  is  only  superficial!}'  sized)  the  erased 
places  are  easier  to  detect  than  in  machine-made  paper. 

The  sizing  which  is  applied  to  ordinary  writing- 
paper  is  a  paste  holding  resin  soap.  In  order  to 
heighten  the  white  of  the  paper  a  hlue  material,  either 
nltramarine  or  Berlin  blue,  is  added.  On  the  other 
hand,  almost  every  paper  contains  traces  of  iron  de- 
rived from  the  water  which  is  used  in  its  manufacture. 

If  the  forgery  of  the  writing  have  been  effected  b}'^ 
the  aid  of  chemical  means,  certain  changes  in  the 
color  of  the  paper  will  be  noticeable.  On  the  places 
in  question  will  be  found  gray,  yellow,  or  white  spots, 
recognizable  in  reflected  and  transmitted  light. 

Reagents  in  the  Cold. — A  piece  of  slightly  moist 
litmus  paper  is  laid  on  the  suspected  place  and  pressed 
strongly.  If  acid  still  stick  to  the  document's  surface 
(oxalic,  citric),  the  litmus  paper  will  be  reddened. 
After  this  test  the  suspected  area  is  exposed  to  the 
action  of  ammonia  gas,  by  laying  it  on  a  beaker  glass 
in  which  is  some  spirit  of  sal  ammoniac.  In  an  hour 
the  parts  of  the  paper  where  the  ink-decomposing  re- 
agents acted  will  have  shown  themselves  changed,  or 
the  written  characters  which  have  been  disturbed  will 
appear  in  some  color  or  other.  If  the  change  have 
taken  place  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  ammonia 
gas,  but  is  only  moderately  distinct,  the  place  is  touched 
over  gentl}'  Avith  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  dilute 
ammonia   and    ninety-per-cent.    alcohol.      If  nothing 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  173 

appears  by  this  iiietliod  the  moistened  place  is  allowed 
to  become  dry  and  then  is  painted  over  with  a  solution 
of  one  part  gallic  acid  or  gallo-tunnic  acid  in  twenty 
parts  of  forty-five-per-eent.  alcohol.  If  parts  of  oxide 
of  iron  from  the  decomposed  written  characters  are 
found  in  the  mass  of  the  paper  fibre  they  will  now  a[)- 
pear  perhaps  somewhat  blurred.  If  the  paper  contain 
in  itself  oxide  of  iron  (recognizable  by  the  yellow  or 
brownish-yellow  color),  it  is  advisable,  instead  of  gallic 
acid  or  gallo-tannic  acid,  to  employ  a  dilute  solution 
of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  in  water.  This  latter  is  to 
be  recommended  if  the  above  acids  have  given  no  result. 

If  the  ink  with  which  the  decomposed  letters  were 
made  contained  copper  salts,  or  iron  and  copper  salts, 
this  should  insure  a  result. 

Heating-  in  Presence  of  Reagents. — Heating  the 
paper  with  chemical  reagents  is  recommended  (by 
Chevallier  &  Lassaigne)  in  forgeries.  The  paper,  pre- 
viously moistened  with  alcohol,  should  be  heated  di- 
rectly at  the  fire,  or  laid  between  two  paper  sheets 
and  pressed  by  a  hot  iron  until  the  upper  sheet 
browns  feebly,  or  becomes  the  color  of  chamois  skin. 
This  operation  must  be  conducted  with  the  greatest 
caution. 

Another  experiment  recommended  consists  in  the 
action  of  iodine  vapor  on  the  paper.  A  few  iodine 
crystals  are  placed  in  a  tlat  glass  vessel  which  is 
covered  by  the  suspected  parts  of  the  paper.  In  fifteen 
to  thirty  minutes  the  paper  will  have  been  colored  yel- 


174  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

lowish,  and  the  erased  portions,  or  the  places  which 
contained  writing,  will  appear  surrounded  by  a  colored 
border. 

It  is,  nevertheless,  advisable  that  a  previous  experi- 
ment be  made  with  the  same  paper  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain its  behavior  to  iodine.  If  it  be  colored  very 
deeply  by  iodine  vapor  the  color  can  be  again  removed 
by  vapor  of  ammonia. 

Whether  the  one  or  the  other  reagent  be  employed, 
a  preliminary  experiment  with  the  same  paper  is 
always  to  be  undertaken  in  order  to  observ^e  its  be- 
havior to  the  reagent. 

Cases  can  very  well  occur  w^here  a  reagent  can- 
not be  employed  if  the  paper  thereby  will  be  darkly 
colored. 

For  documents  the  paper  should  be  manufactured 
from  a  pulp  which  has  received  an  addition  of  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  caustic  ammonia,  and  proto- 
chloride  of  iron. 

Determination  of  Age. — The  determination  of  the 
age  of  a  written  paper  is  a  problem  difficult  of  solu- 
tion. According  to  F.  Carre  the  age  can  be  approxi- 
mately determined  if  the  characters  written  in  iron  ink 
are  pressed  in  a  copying-press,  and  a  commercial  hydro- 
chloric acid  diluted  with  eleven  parts  of  water  is  sub- 
stituted for  water;  or,  if  the  written  characters  are 
treated  for  some  time  with  this  diluted  acid. 

The  explanation  is  that  the  ink  changes  in  time,  its 
organic  substance  disappears  little  by  little,  and  leaves 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  175 

behind  an  iron  compound,  wliicli  in  part  is  not  attacked 
even  by  acids. 

An  unsized  paper  is  impregnated  with  the  described 
dilute  acid,  copied  with  the  press,  and  a  copy  from  a 
writing  eight  or  ten  ^'^ears  old  can  be  obtained  as 
easily  as  one  by  means  of  water  from  a  writing  one 
day  old. 

A  writing  thirty  years  old  gives,  by  this  method,  a 
copy  hardly  legible,  and  one  over  sixty  years  old,  a 
copy  hardly  visible. 

In  order  to  protect  the  paper  against  the  action  of 
the  acid,  it  should  be  drawn  through  ammoniacal  water. 

Sympathetic  Inks. — The  discovery  and  proof  of 
the  use  of  sympathetic  ink  are  sometimes  required  of 
the  expert.  Solutions  of  salts  of  cobalt,  nickel,  lead, 
copper,  ferrous  oxide,  mercurous  oxide,  ferrocyanide 
of  potassium,  besides  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium, 
diluted  sulphuric  acid,  onion-juice,  solution  of  tannic 
acid,  gallic  acid,  and  radish-juice,  furnish  material  for 
sympathetic  inks. 

First,  heat  must  be  applied,  and  measures  taken  to 
hold  the  paper  over  a  lamp  with  a  glass  cylinder  until 
a  slight  browning  occurs. 

Characters  made  with  cobalt  salt  appear  blue,  those 
with  nickel  salt  are  green,  those  with  the  sulpliuric 
acid  and  plant-juice  are  gray  or  blackish. 

If  the  warming  produce  no  result,  cross-lines  ;ire 
made  across  the  paper  sheet  l)y  means  of  a  very  soft-cut 
goose-quill  dipped  in  a  reagent. 


176  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

Reagents. — The  appropriate  reagents  are :  1,  gallo- 
tanuic  acid ;  2,  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  acidified 
with  a  little  sulphuric  acid;  3,  hydrogen-sulphide 
water ;  4,  ammonium  sulphide ;  5,  copper  vitriol ;  6, 
iron  vitriol ;  7,  solution  of  potassium  iodide ;  8,  caustic 
ammonia ;  9,  lime-water. 

Procedure. — Blotting-paper  is  saturated  with  that 
particular  reagent  which  produces  a  color  reaction, 
and  pressed  strongly  on  the  paper  containing  the 
invisible  writing,  or  the  latter  is  drawn  quickly 
through  a  dilute  solution  of  the  reagent.  If  neither 
heating  nor  any  reagent  produce  a  result,  vapor  of 
iodine  is  allowed  to  act  upon  it,  by  laying  the  paper  in 
a  saucer  or  plate,  of  which  the  bottom  is  covered  with 
iodine  crystals ;  and  if  in  this  way  no  result  be  ob- 
tained, the  paper  is  strewn  with  burnt  ivory  or  fine 
charcoal  powder,  and  a  sheet  of  paper  is  laid  over  it 
and  pressed.  When  the  charcoal  powder  is  removed 
by  light  tapping,  enough  dust  remains  in  contact  with 
the  written  characters,  which  have  been  made  with 
some  indifferent  substance  (dextrine,  india-rubber, 
glue,  etc.),  to  render  the  writing  legible. 

Writings  w^ith  sympathetic  ink  are  not  always  to  be 
sought  on  simple  white  paper ;  more  frequently  they 
are  found  on  the  margins  or  between  the  lines  of 
epistles  written  with  black  ink,  on  the  margins  of 
printed  documents,  or  the  parts  of  notes  uncovered 
by  writing. 

If  the  piece  of  writing  be  observed  in  an  obliquely 


AND    DETECTION    OF   FORGERY.  177 

falling  daylight,  the  usually  duller  '\\Titten  characters 
can  be  recognized,  if  not  deciphered. 

The  paper  can  also  be  laid  between  glass  plates,  and 
ol^served  in  transmitted  sunlight. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

BAUDKIMONT     METHOD.^ 

Reagents  needed. — The  reagents  needed  are  alco- 
hol, reagent  papers,  silver  nitrate,  and  some  others. 

Distilled  water  is  very  useful  in  many  cases  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  paper  has  been  scratched  and  par- 
tially sized  or  treated  with  resin.  If  it  have  not  been 
altered  by  chemical  agents,  this  partial  sizing  and  the 
resinous  matter  used,  give  to  the  paper  a  peculiar  ap- 
pearance. Sizing  takes  away  from  tlie  whiteness  of 
the  paper,  and,  thinned  by  the  scratching  or  washing, 
it  absorbs  water  much  more  quickly  even  when  it  has 
been  partially  sized. 

Mode  of  Operation. — Place  the  document  suspected 
of  being  a  forgery  on  a  sheet  of  white  pai)er  or,  ])etter 
still,  on  a  piece  of  glass;  thou  moisten  little  l)v  little 
with  a  paint-brush  all   parts  of  it,  paying  close  atten- 


1  Dictionnaire  des  alterations  et  falsifications  des  substances  ali- 
nientaires,  etc.,  par  E.  Baudriinoiit.     Paris:  Asselin  et  Cie,  1882. 

12 


178  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

tion  to  the  behavior  of  the  liquid  as  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  paper. 

Water. — By  means  of  water  one  can  discover  what 
acids,  alkalis,  or  salts  the  parts  of  the  paper  with 
colored  borders  or  white  spots  contain. 

"With  the  aid  of  a  pipette  cover  these  spots  with 
water  and  let  it  remain  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes ; 
then  with  the  pipette  remove  the  liquid  and  examine 
the  products  it  holds  in  solution.  Afterwards  make 
a  comparative  experiment  on  another  part  of  the  paper 
which  is  neither  spotted  nor  whitened. 

If  the  original  writing  have  been  done  with  a  very 
acid  ink  on  a  paper  containing  a  carbonate,  such  as 
calcium  carbonate,  the  ink,  in  attacking  the  calcareous 
salt,  stains  the  paper,  so  that  if  the  forger  have  removed 
the  ferruginous  salts  this  removal  is  denoted  by  the 
semi-transparence  that  water  gives  to  the  paper. 

To  study  carefully  the  action  of  the  water  it  is 
necessary  to  repeat  the  experiment  several  times,  al- 
lowing the  paper  to  dry  thoroughly  before  recom- 
mencing it. 

Alcohol. — According  to  Tarr}-,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  recourse  to  alcohol  to  discover  whether  the  paper 
has  been  scratched  in  any  of  the  parts  and  then  cov- 
ered with  a  resinous  matter  to  prevent  the  ink  from 
blotting. 

Place  the  document  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper  and 
with  a  paint-brush  dipped  in  alcohol  of  sp)ecific  gravity 
0.86  or  0.87  cover  the  place   supposed  to  have  been 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  179 

tampered  with.  It  may  be  discovered  if  the  writing 
thickens  and  runs  when  the  alcohol  has  dissolved  the 
resin. 

Hold  the  paper  moistened  with  alcohol  between  the 
eye  and  the  light :  the  thinning  of  the  paper  shows 
the  work  of  the  fol'ger. 

Some  more  skilful  forgers  use  paste  and  resin  at 
the  same  time  to  mask  their  fraudulent  operations; 
in  this  case  luke-warm  water  sliould  be  first  employed 
and  then  alcohol ;  water  to  dilute  the  paste,  and  alco- 
hol to  dissolve  the  rosin.  The  result  is  that  the  ink 
added  on  the  places  scratched  out  spreads,  and  the 
forger}'  is  easily  seen. 

Test-papers. — Test-papers  (litmus,  mauve,  and 
Georgina  paper)  serve  to  determine  whether  a 
paper  has  been  washed  either  by  the  help  of  chemi- 
cal agents,  acids  incompletely  removed,  or  the  sur- 
plus of  which  has  been  saturated  by  an  alkali,  or 
by  the  help  of  alkaline  substances.  The  change 
of  the  color  to  red  indicates  an  acid  substance ; 
an  alkali  would  turn  the  reddened  litmus  paper  to 
blue,  and  the  mauve  and  Georgina  test-papers  to 
green. 

Take  a  sheet  of  test-paper  of  the  same  dimensions 
as  the  document  to  be  examined,  moisten  it,  and  cover 
it  underneath  with  a  sheet  of  Swedish  filter-paper. 
These  two  sheets  together  (the  filter-pa|)or  underneath) 
are  then  applied  to  the  document  which  has  been 
moistened  already.     The  whole  is  then  laitl  between 


180  STUDY   OF    HAND  WRITING 

two  quires  of  paper,  covered  by  a  weighted  board,  and 
left  in  contact  for  about  an  hour. 

At  the  end  of  this  time  examine  the  test-paper  to 
see  if  it  has  partly  or  altogether  changed  color. 
This  examination  finished,  put  the  test-paper  in  con- 
tact with  distilled  water,  to  be  afterwards  removed 
and  tried  by  appropriate  tests  to  discover  the  nature 
of  the  alkali  or  acid  present.  Instead  of  test-papers, 
tinctures  of  litmus,  mauve,  or  purple  dahlia  may  be 
used. 

Silver  Nitrate. — Silver  nitrate  is  used  to  discover 
whether  the  paper  has  been  washed  with  chlorine  or 
chlorides.  A  paper  in  that  way  becomes  acid.  The 
chlorine  changes  to  hydrochloric  acid,  which  dissolves 
in  the  water  with  which  the  suspected  document  is 
moistened,  and  at  the  contact  of  silver  nitrate  little 
spots  of  silver  chloride  appear. 

Various  other  Tests. — Certain  reagents,  such  as 
gallo-tannic  acid  or  infusion  of  nutgalls  prepared  a 
short  time  before,  potassium  ferrocyanide,  alkaline 
sulphites,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  may  all  be  used 
with  advantage  to  restore  writings  that  have  been  re- 
moved by  washing.  Place  the  document  on  a  sheet  of 
white  paper  and  moisten  the  whole  of  its  surface  with 
a  paint-brush  dipped  in  the  reagent,  taking  care  not 
to  rub  it  or  strongly  press  it.  When  the  surface  is 
well  impregnated  allow  the  solution  to  act  for  an  hour, 
and  at  the  end  of  this  time  examine  the  document 
again.    Then  moisten  it  a  second  time,  and  the  follow- 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  181 

ing  day  examine  the  results.  Repeat  the  moistening 
several  times  if  necessary,  for  it  often  takes  some  time 
to  make  the  traces  of  writing  reappear. 

Use  of  the  Vapor  of  Iodine. — Chevallier  and  Las- 
saigue  experimented  together  on  the  effect  produced 
by  the  vapor  of  iodine  on  the  surface  of  papers  or 
documents  upon  which  the  alteration  of  writing  was 
suspected.  Take  a  bottle  with  a  wide  mouth  from  ten 
to  eleven  centimeters  in  height,  and  the  opening  from 
five  to  six  centimeters  in  width.  This  last  is  covered 
by  a  disk  of  unpolished  glass.  Into  the  bottom  of 
this  vessel  introduce  from  twenty  to  thirty  grams 
of  iodine  in  crystals. 

Place  the  portion  of  paper  on  wliich  the  vapor  of 
iodine  is  to  act  at  the  opening  of  the  bottle,  and  cover 
it  with  the  stopper  of  unpolished  glass,  on  which  put 
a  weight  so  as  to  exert  a  slight  pressure,  and  in  order 
that  the  aperture  may  be  hermetically  closed.  Then 
allow  the  vapor  of  iodine  to  act  on  the  dry  paper  for 
three  or  four  minutes  at  the  temperature  of  15°  to  16° 
(Cent.)  and  examine  it  attentively.  When  the  sur- 
face has  not  been  spotted  by  any  liquid  (water, 
alcohol,  salt  water,  vinegar,  saliva,  tears,  urine,  acids, 
acid  salts,  or  alkalis)  a  uniform  pale-yellow  or  yellow- 
ish-brown tinge  will  be  noticed  on  all  i>arts  of  the 
paper  exposed  to  the   vajtor  of   iodine. 

Otherwise  a  different  and  easily-distinguished  tinge 
shows  itself  on  the  surface  that  has  been  moistened 
and  then  drird  in  tiu-  open  air. 


182  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

Machine-made  papers  with  starchy  and  resinous 
sizing  give  such  decided  reactions  that  sometimes  it 
is  possible  to  distinguish  by  the  color  the  portion  of 
the  paper  treated  with  alcohol  from  that  moistened 
with  water.  The  spot  produced  by  alcohol  takes 
a  bistre-yellow  tinge;  that  formed  by  water  becomes  a 
violet-blue,  more  or  less  deep,  after  having  dried  at 
an  ordinary  temperature.  As  to  the  spots  produced 
by  other  aqueous  liquids,  they  approach  in  appear- 
ance (though  not  in  intensity)  those  occasioned  by 
pure  water.  Feeble  acids,  or  those  diluted  by  water, 
act  like  water;  but  the  concentrated  mineral  acids, 
in  altering  more  or  less  the  substances  of  the  sizing, 
produce  spots  that  present  differences. 

The  spots  which  become  apparent  in  using  the  vapor 
of  iodine  are  due  to  chemical  agents  whose  strength 
has  altered  either  the  fibres  of  the  surface,  or  the  paste 
uniting  them.  For  this  reason  stamped  papers,  whose 
preparation  and  sale  are  superintended  by  the  French 
government,  are  less  easy  to  falsify  than  ordinary  ma- 
chine-made papers. 

In  a  word,  the  test  of  a  paper  by  vapor  of  iodine 
has  the  double  advantage  of  indicating  the  place  of 
the  supposed  alteration  and  operating  afterwards  with 
appropriate  reagents  to  bring  back  the  traces  of  ink. 
It  is  only  the  reappearance  of  former  letters  or  figures 
written  or  effaced  that  demonstrates  forgery. 

The  difference  of  the  action  of  the  vapor  of  iodine 
on  the  surface  of  a  paper  which  is  not  homogeneous 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  183 

permits  one  to  judge  whether  or  not  it  has  received, 
in  certain  parts  limited  in  area,  a  fine  layer  of  some 
glutinous  matter  (gum,  gelatin,  or  flour  paste)  to 
make  it  adhere  to  other  sheets  of  paper. 

This  method  of  testing  may  be  tried  at  the  same 
time  with  that  w^hich  consists  in  proving  this  addition, 
either  by  the  reflection  of  incident  light  on  paper  in- 
clined at  a  certain  angle  or  by  the  transmission  of 
daylight  or  artificial  light  through  the  same  paper. 

Machine-made  papers  and  stamped  papers  take  a 
violet-blue  color  in  the  parts  covered  by  starchy 
paste,  but  with  the  first  a  more  intense  color  is  pro- 
duced in  the  parts  treated  with  a  thin  layer  of  gum 
arable,  fish-glue,  or  gelatin,  whereas  these  same 
substances  spread  on  certain  parts  of  the  surface  of 
stamped  papers  become  neither  darker  nor  yellower 
than  the  parts  free  from  it.  But  on  looking  at 
the  light  incident  to  the  surface  of  the  paper  held 
obliquely,  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  the  parts  to  which 
these  various  substances  have  been  applied. 


Table  V.,  from  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  of  October  31,  1892,  is  a  useful  compendium 
of  the  more  usual  tests  which  may  be  applied  to  tlie 
inks  of  written  documents.  It  was  published  origi- 
uallyiin  the  Pharmacciitische  Central-Halle,  Ncue  Folge, 
1892,  No.  13,  p.  225,  by  A.  Robertson  and  J.  Kofmaun. 


184 


STUDY   OF    HANDWEITING 


TABLE   v.— TESTS   FOR   INKS. 

Di'aw  a  moistened  quill  or  gold  pen  over  the  ink-mark,  and  observe  %vith  a 
magn  ifying-glass. 


INKS. 

REAGENTS. 

Iron 
Tannate. 
"  Nutgall." 

Logwood 

with 
KaCr  O4. 

Logwood 

with 
CU.SO4. 

Nigrosin. 

Vanadium.  Resorcinol. 

Oxalic  Acid 
3  per  cent. 

Disap- 
pears. 

Violet. 

Orange- 
yellow. 

Unaltered. 

Bleached 
and  runs 
slightly. 

Bright  red. 

Citric  or  Tar- 
taric Acid 
10  per  cent. 

Bleached. 

Violet. 

Orange- 
yellow. 

Runs  and 
becomes 
dark 
blue. 

Bleached     Disap- 
and  runs.      pears. 

HCI. 
10  per  cent. 

Disap- 
pears, 
leaving 
a  yellow 
color. 

Purple- 
red. 

Blood-red. 

Little  al- 
tered. 

Bleached    i  Bright 
slightly,  1     rose, 
runs        ' 
slightly. 

H2SO4 
15  per  cent. 

Disap- 
pears. 

Red. 

Purple- 
red. 

Unaltered. 

Bleached    i  Bright  red. 
slightly.  1 

HNO3 
20  per  cent. 

Disap- 
pears. 

Red. 

Purple- 
red. 

Runs 
slightly. 

Bleached 
slightly. 

Bright 
rose. 

SnCla  1  pt.       1 

HCI  1  pt.      y 

Water  10  pts.  j 

Disap- 
pears. 

Red. 

Magenta- 
red. 

Unaltered. 

Bleached 
slightly. 

Disap- 
pears. 

SOo 
(sat.  sol.). 

Bleached. 

Gray- 
violet. 

Red. 

Unaltered. 

Bleached     Bleached, 
slightly 
and  runs. 

AUCI3 
4  per  cent. 

Bleached 
slightly. 

Red- 
brown. 

Brown. 

Unaltered. 

Unaltered.    Becomes 
brown 
and 

NajSoOs  1  pt.  1 

runs. 

Aq.      Ammo-  1 

nia  1  pt.        1 

Water  10  pts.  J 

Dark  red. 

Unaltered. 

Dark  blue. 

Becomes 
dark  vio- 
let and 

Runs            Brown, 
freely. 

I 

KFe.Cylpt.  ■) 
HCI  1  pt.         y 
Water  10  pts.  J 

runs. 

Blue. 

Red. 

Brick-red. 

Unaltered. 

Unaltered.   Rose. 

NaHO 
4  per  cent. 

Dark  red. 

Brown. 

Becomes 
dark  red 
and  runs. 

Becomes 
dark  vio- 
let and 
runs. 

Becomes       Unaltered, 
dirty 
brown 
and  runs. 

Chlorinated 
Lime 
2  per  cent. 

Disap- 
pears. 

Disap- 
pears. 

Disap- 
pears, 
leaving 
a  yellow 
co'lor. 

Brown. 

Unaltered. 

Brown. 

AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  185 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

CONCERNING   THE    LAWS    RELATING   TO    THE   TESTIMONY    OF 
EXPERTS    ON    HANDWRITING. 

It  was  the  original  intention  of  the  author  to 
cause  to  be  made  a  short  compendium  of  the  laws 
governing  the  testimony  of  expert  witnesses  in  for- 
gery cases  in  the  various  courts  of  this  and  other 
countries,  but  lack  of  space  and  of  the  ability  to 
even  properly  edit  such  a  chapter  have  caused  him 
to  forego  this  attempt. 

In  the  absence  of  such  a  compilation  the  follow- 
ing extract  from  Stephen's  Law  of  Evidence^  is  ap- 
pended for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  interested 
in  looking  up  the  authorities  cited  for  themselves. 

STEPHEN'S  LAW  OF  EVIDENCE.  PART  I.,  CHAPTER  V. 
ARTICLE   XLIX. 

OPINIONS    OF    EXPERTS    ON    POINTS    OF    SCIENCE    OR    ART. 

"  When  there  is  a  question  as  to  any  point  of  science 
or  art,  the  opinions  upon  that  point  of  persons  specially 

1  A  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evidence,  by  Sir  James  Fitzjames 
Stephen,  K.C.S.I.  A  Judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  Queen's 
Bench  Division.  Fourth  English  edition.  American  Edition  with 
annotations  and  references  to  American  cases,  by  George  Chase, 
LL.B.,  Professor  of  Criminal  Law,  Torts,  and  Procedure  in  the  Law 
School  of  Columbia  College.  New  York :  Printed  for  the  editor, 
1890. 


186  STUDY    OF    HANDWEITING 

skilled  in  any  such  matter  are  deemed  to  be  relevant 
facts. 

"  Such  persons  are  hei'einafter  called  experts. 

"  The  words  '  science  or  art'  include  all  subjects  on 
which  a  course  of  special  study  or  experience  is  neces- 
sary to  the  formation  of  an  opinion,  and  amongst 
others  the  examination  of  handwritino;. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

"  The  question  is,  whether  a  certain  document  was 
written  by  A.  Another  document  is  produced  which 
is  proved  or  admitted  to  have  been  written  by  A. 

"  The  opinions  of  experts  on  the  question  whether 
the  two  documents  were  written  by  the  same  person, 
or  by  different  persons,  are  deemed  to  be  relevant.^ 

AKTICLE   LI. 

OPINION    AS    TO    HANDWRITING,  WHEN    DEEMED    TO    BE    RELEVANT. 

"  When  there  is  a  question  as  to  the  person  by 
whom  any  document  was  written  or  signed,  the  opinion 
of  any  person  acquainted  with  the  handwriting  of  the 
supposed  writer  that  it  was  or  was  not  written  or 
signed  by  him,  is  deemed  to  be  a  relevant  fact.^ 

"  A  person  is  deemed  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
handwriting  of  another  person  when  he  has  at  any 
time  seen  that  person  write,^  or  when  he  has  received 

1  "  28  Vict.  c.  18,  s.  8 ;  see  Art.  52,  and  note. 

2  "For  a  valuable  article  on  this  subject,  see  Am.  Law  Rev.,  xvi. 

569. 

'  "  Having  seen  him  write  once  is  enough  ;  this  effects  the  weight, 


AND   DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  187 

documents  purporting  to  be  written  b}-  that  person  in 
answer  to  documents  written  by  himself  or  under  his 
authority,  and  addressed  to  that  person/  or  when  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  business,  documents  purporting 
to  be  written  by  that  person  have  been  habitually  sub- 
mitted to  him.  ^ 

not  the  competency,  of  the  testimony.  Hammond  r.  Varian,  54 
N.  Y.  398  ;  Comm.  v.  Nefus,  135  Mass.  533  ;  McNair  t;.  Comm.,  26  Pa. 
St.  388.  So  a  person's  mark  may  be  proved  in  this  way.  Strong's 
Excrs.,  17  Ala.  706;  Fogg  v.  Dennis,  3  Humph.  47;  Jackson  v.  Van 
Dusen,  5  Johns.  144;  contra,  Shinkle  v.  Crock,  17  Pa.  St.  159.  But 
a  person  who  sees  another  write,  or  examines  his  handwriting,  ex- 
pressly for  the  purpose  of  being  able  to  testify,  is,  in  general,  an  in- 
competent witness.  Eeese  v.  Reese,  90  Pa.  St.  89;  Board  of  Trustees 
V.  Nusenheimer,  78  111.  22 ;  Hynes  v.  McDermott,  82  N.  Y.  41,  53. 
A  witness  may  testify  as  to  handwriting  who  cannot  read  or  write 
himself.     Foye  v.  Patch,  132  Mass.  105. 

1  "Chaffee  v.  Taylor,  3  Allen,  598;  Clark  v.  Freeman,  25  Pa.  St. 
133 ;  Cunningham  v.  Hudson  River  Bk.,  21  "VVend.  557 ;  Empire 
Mf'g  Co.  V.  Stuart,  46  Mich.  482.  But  this  is  sometimes  not  sufficient 
authentication.  McKeone  v.  Barnes,  108  Mass.  344.  So  if  the  wit- 
ness has  received  letters  or  other  writings  of  a  person,  who  has  after- 
wards, by  words  or  acts,  acknowledged  their  genuineness  (Gr.  Ev.  1, 
^  577;  Johnson  v.  Daverne,  19  Johns.  134;  Snyder  v.  McKeever,  10 
Bradw.  188) ;  but  not  if  he  has  only  seen  letters  to  strangers,  pur- 
porting to  be  those  of  the  person  in  question.  Phila.  etc.  R.  Co.  r. 
Hickman,  28  Pa.  St.  318;  Nunes  v.  Perry,  113  Mass.  276. 

^  "  See  Illustration  ;  Titford  v.  Knott,  2  Johns.  Cas.  211 ;  Comm. 
V.  Smith,  6  S.  «&  R.  568.  Thus  public  officers  who  have  seen  many 
official  documents  filed  in  their  office,  having  the  signature  of  a  cer- 
tain justice,  may  testify  as  to  an  alleged  signature  of  hi.s.  Rogers  r. 
Ritter,  12  Wall.  317 ;  Amherst  Bk.  r.  Root,  2  Met.  522 :  Still  v.  Reese, 
47  Cal.  294.     As  to  signatures  upon  ancient  writings,  a  person  may 


188  STUDY    OF    HANDAVRITING 

ILLUSTRATION. 

"  The  question  is,  whether  a  given  letter  is  in  the 
handwriting  of  A,  a  merchant  in  Calcutta. 

"B  is  a  merchant  in  London,  who  has  written  let- 
ters addressed  to  A,  and  received  in  answer  letters 
purporting  to  be  written  by  him.  C  is  B's  clerk, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  examine  and  file  B's  correspond- 
ence. D  is  B's  broker,  to  whom  B  habitually  sub- 
mitted the  letters  purporting  to  be  written  by  A  for 
the  purpose  of  advising  with  him  thereon. 

"  The  opinions  of  B,  C,  and  D  on  the  question 
whether  the  letter  is  in  the  handwriting  of  A  are  rele- 
vant, though  neither  B,  C,  or  D  ever  saw  A  write.^ 

"  The  opinion  of  E,  who  saw  A  write  once  twenty 
years  ago,  is  also  relevant.  ^ 

AKTICLE   LII. 

COMPARISON    OF    HANDWRITINGS. 

"  Comparison  of  a  disputed  handwriting  with  any 
writing  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  judge  to  be 
genuine  is  permitted  to  be  made  by  witnesses,  and 
such  writings,  and  the  evidence  of  witnesses  respecting 

testify  who  has  gained  his  knowledge  by  inspecting  other  ancient  au- 
thentic documents  bearing  the  same  signature.  Jackson  v.  Brooks,  8 
Wend.  426,  15  id.  111. 

1  "  Doe  V.  Suckermore,  5  A.  &  E.  705  (Coleridge,  J.) ;  730  (Patte- 
son,  J.) ;  739-40  (Denman,  C.  J,). 

■^  "K.  V.  Home  Tooke,  25  S.  T.  71-2;  see  Brachmann  v.  Hall,  1 
Disney,  539. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORCxERY.  189 

the  same,  may  be  submitted  to  the  court  and  jury  as 
evidence  of  the  genuineness  or  otherwise  of  the  wri- 
ting in  dispute.  This  paragraph  applies  to  all  courts 
of  judicature,  criminal  or  civil,  and  to  all  persons 
having  by  law,  or  by  consent  of  parties,  authority  to 
hear,  receive,  and  examine  evidence."  ^ 

1  "  17  &  18  Vict.  c.  125,  s.  27  ;  28  Vict.  c.  18,  s.  8.  There  are 
diverse  rules  on  this  subject  in  difterent  States.  A  rule  substantially- 
like  the  Enfiflish  rule  prevails  in  all  the  New  England  States,  in  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Mississippi,  Texas,  Ohio,  Iowa,  and  Kansas. 
Woodman  v.  Dana,  52  Me.  9;  State  v.  Hastings,  53  N.  H.  452;  but 
here  the  jury  judge  whether  the  writing  used  as  a  standard  is  genu- 
ine ;  State  v.  Ward,  39  Vt.  225 ;  Costello  v.  Crowell,  133  Mass.  352 ; 
Pub.  St.  K.  I.,  c.  214,  ?  42;  Tyler  v.  Todd,  36  Ct.  218,  Peck  v.  Cal- 
laghan,  95  N.  Y.  73;  Laws  of  1880,  N.  Y.  c.  36  ;  N.  J.  Rev  ,  p.  381; 
Koons  V.  State,  36  O,  St.  195  ;  Singer  Mf  g  Co.  v.  McFarland,  53  la. 
540  ;  Macomber  r.  Scott,  10  Kan.  335.  But  in  many  States,  collateral 
and  irrelevant  writings  cannot  be  introduced  for  comparison  :  Wil- 
liams V.  State,  61  Ala.  33;  First  Nat.  Bank  v.  Eobert,  41  Mich.  709; 
Hazleton  v.  Union  Bank,  32  Wis.  34;  State  v.  Clinton,  67  Mo.  380; 
Brobstoii  r.  Cahill,  64  111.  356;  Burress's  Case,  27  Gratt.  946;  Her- 
rick  V.  Swomley,  56  Md.  439;  Hawkins  v.  Grimes,  13  B.  Mon.  260; 
Yates  V.  Yates,  76  N.  C.  143 ;  so  in  the  Federal  Courts :  U.  S.  v. 
Jones,  20  Blatch.  235;  generally,  however,  in  these  States  genuine 
writings  properly  in  evidence  in  the  case  may  be  used  for  comparison 
by  the  jury,  and  in  a  number  of  thciu  such  comparison  may  be  made 
by  experts  to  aid  the  jury  (Id).  In  Indiana  comparison  may  be 
made  by  experts  with  writings  admitted  to  be  genuine  :  Shorb  v. 
Kinzie,  80  Ind.  600.  In  Pennsylvania  comparison  with  writings 
proved  to  be  genuine  may  be  made  bj'  the  jury'  as  corroborative  evi- 
dence, but  not  by  experts.  Borryhill  r.  Kirchner,  96  Pa.  St.  489. 
See  this  general  subject  fully  treated  in  Am.  Law  Kev.  xvii.  21  ; 
Gr.  Ev.  1,  U  576-582. 


190  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

The  opinion  of  one  who  saw  another  write  twenty 
years  ago  is  relevant  (p.  188) ;  and  a  witness  may  tes- 
tify as  to  handwriting  who  cannot  himself  read  or 
write  (p.  187,  n.) ;  but  a  person  who  sees  another 
write  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  being  able  to  testify, 
is  in  general  an  incompetent  witness  (Ibid.). 

Handwriting-  Evidence  in  Pennsylvania. — The  law 
in  Pennsylvania  applicable  to  expert  testimony  on 
handwriting  has  been  very  ably  and  fully  summed  up 
by  the  late  Chief-Justice  "Woodward,  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Pennsylvania,  in  an  opinion  in  the  case  of 
Travis  vs.  Brown,  reported  in  43  Pennsylvania  State 
Reports,  page  9.  This  opinion  avowedly  restricts  itself 
to  expounding  the  law  as  it  exists,  and  if  the  latter  be 

"  A  person's  signature  or  other  writing  made  in  court  at  the  trial 
will  not  generally  be  allowed  to  be  used  for  comparison.  Comm.  v. 
Allen,  128  Mass.  46;  Gilbert  v.  Simpson,  6  Daly,  29;  "Williams  v. 
State,  61  Ala.  33.  But  this  is  something  permitted  upon  cross-exami- 
nation, or  when  the  writing  is  made  at  the  request  of  the  opposite 
party  who  oflfers  it  for  comparison.  Chandler  v.  LeBarron,  45  Me. 
534;  Bronner  r.  Loomis,  14  Hun,  341  King  v.  Donahue,  110  Mass. 
155. 

"  Letter-press  copies  cannot  be  used  for  comparison.  Cohen  v. 
Teller,  93  Pa.  St.  123;  Comm.  v.  Eastman,  1  Cush.  189.  But  photo- 
graphic copies  may  be  when  the  originals  are  also  before  the  court. 
Hynes  v.  McDermott,  82  N.  Y.  41 ;  Marcy  v.  Barnes,  16  Gray,  162; 
but  see  Tome  v.  Parkersburgh,  etc.,  K.  Co.,  39  Md.  36. 

"  Experts  in  handwriting  may  also  testify  to  other  matters ;  as, 
e.ff.,  whether  a  writing  is  forged  or  altered,  when  a  writing  was  prob- 
ably made,  etc. :  Travis  r.  Brown,  43  Pa.  St.  9  ;  "Withee  v.  Kowe,  45 
Me.  571." 


AND   DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  191 

little  in   keeping  with  the  age  it  is  no  fault  of  the 
learned  jurist. 

This  opinion  recurs  so  frequently  in  eases  involving 
the  kind  of  investigations  which  have  been  considered 
that  it  is  given  here  at  length,  except  the  concluding 
sentences  which  are  concerned  with  the  application  of 
the  principles  just  announced  to  a  particular  case  be- 
fore the  court,  and  which  throw  no  additional  light  on 
those  principles. 

SUPREME    COURT    OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 

43  Penna.  State  Reports,  page  9. 
(Travis  vs.  Brown.) 

(The  opinion  of  the  court  was  delivered,  May  2^,  1862,  by  Wood- 
ward, J.) 

All  evidence  of  handwriting,  except  in  the  single  instance  where 
the  witness  saw  the  document  written,  is  in  its  nature  comparison  of 
hands.  It  is  the  belief  which  the  witness  entertains,  upon  com- 
paring the  writing  in  question  with  the  exemplar  in  his  mind  derived 
from  some  previous  knowledge.  Any  witness,  otherwise  disinter- 
ested, who  has  had  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  such  an  exemplar,  is 
competent  to  speak  of  his  belief.  It  is  one  of  the  few  instances  in 
which  the  law  accepts  from  witnesses  belief  in  facts,  instead  of  facts 
themselves.  No  prudent  witness  will  undertake  to  swear  that  any 
signature  or  document  was  written  by  the  person  by  whom  it  pur- 
ports to  have  been  written,  unless  he  saw  it  written;  but  if,  from 
having  seen  the  party  write,  or  from  correspondence  or  business  with 
him  he  has  become  familiar  with  his  hand,  he  may  testify  to  his  belief 
as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  writing  in  question.  This  is  the  ordi- 
nary every-day  rule  of  practice  in  the  trial  of  causes. 

But  though  it  is  in  its  nature  a  comparison  of  the  writing  under 
investigation  with  the  exemplar  in  the  witness's  mind,  it  is  not  what 


192  STUDY    OF    HAXD WRITING 

is  technically  called  comparison  of  hands.  Still  less  is  it  that  peculiar 
kind  of  proof  which  is  known  in  the  books  as  the  testimony  of  ex- 
perts. Comparison  of  handwritings  was  defined  by  Judge  Duncan, 
in  Commonwealth  vs.  Smith,  6  S.  &  K.,  571,  to  be  "  when  other  wit- 
nesses have  proved  a  paper  to  be  the  handwriting  of  a  party,  and  then 
the  witness  on  the  stand  is  desired  to  take  the  two  papers  in  hand, 
compare  them,  and  say  whether  or  not  they  are  the  same  hand- 
writing. The  witness  collects  all  his  knowledge  from  comparison 
only :  he  knows  nothing  of  himself:  he  has  not  seen  the  party  write 
nor  held  any  correspondence  with  him."  Starkie's  definition  is  more 
condensed,  though  to  the  same  eflect :  "  By  comparison  is  meant," 
he  says,  "  a  comparison  by  the  juxtaposition  of  two  writings,  in  order, 
by  such  comparison,  to  ascertain  whether  both  were  written  by  the 
same  person  :"  Metcalf's  Starkie  on  Ev.,  part  4,  p.  654. 

Now  this  is  as  distinct  and  separate  a  thing  from  that  comparison 
which  a  witness  called  to  testify  to  handwriting  makes  between  the 
writing  in  question  and  the  exemplar  in  his  mind,  as  an  external, 
visible,  and  tangible  object  is  distinct  from  a  mental  impression  or 
memory.  It  is  the  distinction  between  what  is  objective  and  what  is 
subjective. 

A  few  words  now  as  to  experts.  In  Bouvier's  Law  Dictionary, 
they  are  derived  from  the  Latin  experti,  which  signifies  instructed  by 
experience,  and  are  defined  as  persons  selected  by  the  courts  or  the 
parties  in  a  cause,  on  account  of  their  knowledge  or  skill,  to  examine, 
estimate,  and  ascertain  things,  and  make  report  of  their  opinions. 
See  also  note  to  1  Greenl.  Ev.,  pi.  44,  p.  572.  Thus  when  professional 
men  give  evidence  on  matters  of  skill  and  judgment,  their  evidence 
frequently  does  not  and  cannot,  from  the  nature  of  things,  extend 
beyond  opinion  and  belief.  An  engineer  may  be  examined  as  to  his 
judgment  of  the  effect  of  an  embankment  on  a  harbor ;  a  seal-en- 
graver as  to  whether  a  particular  seal  has  been  forged  ;  a  ship-builder 
as  to  the  seaworthiness  of  a  ship  from  a  survey  made  by  others  ;  and 
the  testimony  of  medical  men  is  constantly  admitted  with  respect  to 
the  cause  of  disease  or  of  death,  and  as  to  curing  insanity,  although 
they  found  their  opinions  entirely  on  facts,  circumstances,  and  symp- 


AND   DETECTIOX   OF   FORGERY.  193 

toms  established  in  evidence  by  others:  Sharswood's  Starkie  on  Ev., 
p.  152,  and  the  cases  collected  in  notes. 

The  propriety  of  admitting  the  evidence  of  experts  in  investigating 
questions  of  forgery  is  now  recognized  by  statute  with  us  in  the  53d 
section  of  the  Criminal  Procedure  Act,  and  it  is  a  necessary  rule  of 
evidence  on  general  principles.  Common  sense  dictates  that  in  all 
investigations  requiring  special  skill,  or  when  the  common  intelli- 
gence supposed  to  be  possessed  by  the  jury  is  not  fully  adequate  to  the 
occasion,  we  should  accept  the  assistance  of  persons  whose  studies  or 
occupations  have  given  them  a  large  and  special  experience  on  the 
subject.  Thus,  such  men  of  experience  or  experts  are  admitted  to 
testify  that  work  of  a  given  description  is  or  is  not  executed  with 
ordinary  skill  ;  what  is  the  ordinary  price  of  a  described  article  : 
whether  described  medical  treatment  or  other  practice  was  conducted 
with  ordinary  skill  in  a  specific  case ;  which  of  two  colliding  vessels, 
their  respective  movements  being  given,  was  in  fault;  whether  one 
invention  was  an  infringement  of  another,  looking  at  the  models  of 
both  ;  and  other  cases  already  mentioned. 

This  is  as  near  to  an  exact  definition  of  who  are  admissible  as  ex- 
perts as  it  is  possible  for  us  to  come.  In  all  these  cases  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  expert  is  to  speak  from  no  knowledge  of  the  particular 
facts  which  he  may  happen  to  possess,  but  is  to  pronounce  the  judg- 
ment of  skill  upon  the  particular  facts  proved  bj'  other  witnesses. 
Of  course  the  court  nmst  be  first  satisfied  that  the  witness  oft'ered  is  a 
person  of  such  special  skill  and  experience,  for  if  he  be  not,  he  can 
give  no  proper  assistance  to  the  jury  ;  and  of  course,  also,  very  much 
must  at  last  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  court,  relative  to  the  need 
of  such  assistance  in  the  case;  for  very  often  the  matter  investigated 
may  be  so  bunglingly  done  that  the  most  common  degree  of  obser- 
vation may  be  sufficient  to  judge  it. 

Where  a  witness  is  called  to  testify  to  handwriting,  from  knowl- 
edge of  his  own,  however  derived,  as  to  the  hand  of  the  party,  he  is 
not  an  expert,  but  simply  a  witness  to  a  fact  in  the  only  manner  in 
which  that  fact  is  capable  of  proof.  Nor  is  he  an  expert  who  is  called 
to  compare  a  test  writing,  whose  genuineness  is  established  by  others, 

13 


194  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITINCx 

with  the  writing  under  investigation,  if  he  have  knowledge  of  the 
handwriting  of  the  party,  because  his  judgment  of  the  comparison 
will  be  influenced  more  or  less  by  his  knowledge,  and  will  not  be  what 
the  testimony  of  an  expert  should  be,  a  pure  conclusion  of  skill. 

But  when  a  witness,  skilled  in  general  chirography,  but  possessing 
no  knowledge  of  the  handwriting  under  investigation,  is  called  to 
compare  that  writing  with  other  genuine  writings  that  have  been 
brought  into  juxtaposition  with  it,  he  is  strictly  an  expert.  His  con- 
clusions then  rest  in  no  degree  on  particular  knowledge  of  his  own, 
but  are  the  deductions  of  a  trained  and  experienced  judgment,  from 
premises  furnished  by  the  testimony  of  other  witnesses. 

According  to  many  authorities,  these  forms  of  proof  are  admissible 
in  appropriate  circumstances,  in  cases  both  civil  and  criminal ;  but 
when  evidence  by  comparison  of  hands  should  be  received  ;  whether 
the  witness  making  the  comparison  should  be  qualified  by  personal 
knowledge  of  the  party's  handwriting;  when  mere  experts  should  be 
admitted  to  make  the  comparison  ;  and  what  degree  of  evidence  is  re- 
quired to  establish  the  genuineness  of  test  papers,  are  questions  that 
have  been  debated  in  a  multitude  of  cases;  from  the  attainder  of 
Algernon  Sydney  and  its  reversal,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  the 
case  of  the  Seven  Bishops,  in  the  time  of  James  II.  See  3  State  Trials, 
802,  and  4  Id.  338.  The  English  and  American  authorities  will  be 
found  collected  in  the  notes  to  Starkie  and  Greenleaf,  and  whoever 
will  undertake  to  go  through  them,  will  be  struck  with  the  confusion, 
obscurity,  and  contradiction  which  have  arisen  almost  entirely  from 
disregard  of  the  distinctions  above  stated.  Questions  have  been  dis- 
cussed as  belonging  to  the  law  of  experts,  and  of  comparison  of  hands, 
which  belonged  to  other  heads,  and  judges  and  compilers  have  often 
written  loosely  even  when  these  subjects  were  legitimately  before 
them.  Every  one  knows  how  essential  it  is  to  all  scientific  discussions 
that  terms  be  first  correctly  defined,  and  then  always  used  in  the  de- 
fined sense.  If  this  rule  had  been  reasonably  observed  in  treating  of 
the  branch  of  the  law  we  are  now  upon,  we  should  not  have  so  many 
inconsistent  cases  in  the  books,  and  it  would  not  have  been,  as  it  is 
now,  exceedingly  difficult  for  judges  and  lawyers  to  know  what  the 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  195 

mind  of  the  law  is  touching  proof  of  writings  by  comparison  of 
papers.  "Without  detaining  ourselves  to  make  a  minute  analysis  of 
the  CHses  in  England  and  our  sister  States,  I  propose  to  examine  our 
leading  cases  in  Pennsylvania,  and  to  state  as  clearly  as  I  can,  the 
rule  which  is  fairly  deducible  from  them. 

McCorkle  vs.  Binns,  5  Binn.  348,  involved  a  comparison  of  printed 
papers.  The  law  of  written  papers  came  in  only  incidentally  by  way 
of  illustration,  and  Chief-Justice  Tilghman  simply  stated  the  rule  in 
the  most  general  terms,  that  "  after  evidence  had  been  given  in  sup- 
port of  a  writing  it  may  be  corroborated  by  comparing  the  writing  in 
question  with  other  writings,  concerning  which  there  is  no  doubt.'' 
By  whom  compared,  whether  by  the  jury  or  a  witness,  and  if  by  a 
witness,  what  qualifications  he  must  have,  were  points  which  the 
Chief  Justice  did  not  touch. 

In  the  Farmers'  Bank  vs.  Whitehill,  10  S.  &  R.  110,  Whitehill  was 
sued  as  endorsee  of  a  promissory  note,  and  the  genuineness  of  his  sig- 
nature was  the  point  in  question.  Matthiut  and  McClure  both  swore 
to  their  belief  that  the  endorsement  was  in  Whitehill's  handwriting. 
They  had  both  seen  him  write,  and  ilatthiot  had  Whitehill's  signa- 
ture to  a  receipt  in  his  possession.  Of  course  they  were  both  qualified 
to  prove  the  endorsement  according  to  the  ordinary  rule  of  evidence. 
But  to  corroborate  their  opinions,  an  original  administration  account 
was  offered  in  evidence,  which  Whitehill  and  his  mother  had  settled, 
signed  and  sworn  to  in  the  presence  of  the  register  who  proved  it. 
This  account,  the  genuineness  of  which  was  thus  indubitably  estab- 
lished, was  the  test  paper  that  was  brought  into  juxtaposition  witii  the 
endorsed  note,  and  it  was  offered  in  evidence  by  the  plaintiff  to  the 
jury  "  that  they  might  compare  the  signature  of  the  defendant  there- 
to with  the  handwriting  of  the  note."  The  Judge  of  the  CunmiDn 
Pleas  rejected  the  evidence,  but  this  court  ruled  that  it  ought  to  have 
been  admitted.  The  doctrine  which  this  case  established,  therefore, 
was  that,  in  corroboration  of  antecedent  testimony  of  a  signature,  a 
test  paper,  clearly  proved,  might  be  submitted  to  the  jury  to  make 
comparison  of  the  two  papers.  This  was  evidence  by  comparison  of 
hands,  but  it  was  comparison  by  jury  instead  of  a  witness. 


196  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING 

In  Lodge  vs.  Pipher,  11  S.  &  K.  334,  the  effort  was  to  prove  that  a 
receipt  of  Keuben  Haines  had  been  forged  by  one  William  Shaw,  and 
for  this  purpose  several  papers  were  produced,  and  fully  identified  as 
Shaw's  writing.  Instead  of  submitting  them  to  the  jury  to  compare 
with  the  receipt,  Israel  Pleasants  was  called  as  an  expert  to  make  the 
comparison,  and  to  give  his  opinion  of  the  signature  of  the  receipt. 
He  had  never  seen  Shaw  write,  but  he  had  been  a  man  of  business 
for  many  years,  bad  an  extensive  correspondence,  and  was  accustomed 
to  see  a  great  deal  of  writing.  The  court  admitted  him  to  testify,  but 
this  court  reversed  the  ruling  in  an  emphatic  opinion  by  Chief  Jus- 
tice Tilghman. 

This  case  is  entirely  consistent  with  the  Bank  vs.  Whitehill,  and 
the  two  taken  together  establish  the  rule  that  comparison  of  hands 
may  be  made  by  a  jury  but  not  by  a  mere  expert. 

Bank  of  Pennsylvania  vs.  The  Administrators  of  Samuel  Jacobs, 
deceased,  1  Penna.  Rep.  178.  The  genuineness  of  a  certain  check, 
purporting  to  have  been  drawn  by  Samuel  Jacobs  in  his  lifetime,  was 
in  question  in  this  case.  After  several  genuine  checks  had  been  given 
in  evidence  on  the  part  of  the  defendant,  three  witnesses  were  called 
who  had  seen  Jacobs  write  frequently,  and  had  for  a  long  time  done 
business  and  carried  on  correspondence  with  him,  and  they  were  per- 
mitted to  compare  the  genuine  checks  with  the  doubtful  one,  and  to 
give  their  opinion  that  it  was  a  forgery.  Then,  on  the  part  of  the 
Bank,  three  cashiers  of  other  banks  were  called  to  testify  as  experts. 
They  had  all  the  experience  in  judging  of  writings  which  cashiers  of 
banks  usually  acquire,  but  they  had  never  seen  Jacobs  write.  Their 
testimony  was  also  admitted.  This  court,  in  a  very  satisfactory  opin- 
ion by  the  late  Judge  Smith,  decided  that  the  three  witnesses  on  part 
of  the  defendant,  were  rightly  admitted,  but  that  the  testimony  of  the 
three  cashiers  on  the  part  of  the  plaintiff  ought  to  have  been  excluded. 

It  is  manifest  that,  according  to  general  rules,  the  three  witnesses 
were  competent  to  speak  of  the  signature  of  the  check,  because  they 
had  seen  Jacobs  write.  They  had  exemplars  in  their  minds,  and  com- 
paring the  check  with  these,  they  had  a  right  to  speak.  The  point 
of  the  ruling  was  that  they  might  also  compare  the  check  with  the 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  197 

accredited  tests  that  were  in  evidence  ;  but  the  learned  judge  fell  into 
error  when  he  cited  Bank  vs.  Whitehill  as  an  authority  on  this  point, 
because,  as  we  have  sesn,  that  case  ruled  that  the  jury,  not  witnesses, 
were  to  make  the  comparison.  He  more  accurately  quoted  Pipher  vs. 
Lodge,  as  an  authority  against  admitting  the  experts.  I  do  not  think 
the  court  meant  to  advance  a  step  in  this  case  beyond  the  doctrine  of 
the  prior  cases.  The  testimony  of  the  defendant's  witnesses  was  ad- 
missible, without  reference  to  the  peculiar  doctrine  of  comparison  of 
hands,  and  I  hold  that  the  comparison  which  the  case  in  10  S.  &  R. 
had  decided  was  to  be  made  by  the  jury,  was  as  much  the  rule  after 
Jacobs's  case  as  before  it. 

Callan  vs.  Gaylord,  3  Watts  323,  is  not  a  very  intelligible  case. 
Though  a  civil  action  for  libel,  the  opinion  of  Gibson,  C.  J.,  is  a 
good  deal  occupied  with  an  argument  to  prove  that  the  rule  of  evi- 
dence in  regard  to  comparison  of  hands  is  the  same  in  civil  and  crimi- 
nal cases.  The  account  books  which  were  produced  as  tests  were 
proved  by  witnesses  who  were  acquainted  with  the  defendant's  wri- 
ting, and  we  understand  the  chief  justice  to  have  ruled  that  they 
were  admissible  for  the  jury  to  make  comparison  of  them  with  the 
alleged  libel.  This  was  consistent  with  Bank  vs.  Whitehill,  which  he 
cited,  and  doubtless  meant  to  follow. 

Baker  vs.  Haines,  6  Wh.  291,  states  the  general  principle  of  the  ad- 
missibility of  comparison  of  hands,  without  intimating  whether  the 
comparison  is  to  be  made  by  witnesses  or  the  jury,  and  then  rules  that 
very  strict  proof  should  be  given  of  the  genuine  or  test  paper, — such 
as  would  leave  no  reasonable  doubt  on  that  point.  And  the  proof  of 
the  test  papers  in  that  case  was  held  insufficient,  though  it  was  made 
by  witnesses  wiio  had  seen  the  party  write.  This  is  a  very  important 
case  in  regard  to  what  is  sufficient  to  establish  a  test ;  but  who  is  to 
apply  the  test  when  established,  whether  jury  or  witness,  is  not  de- 
cided in  the  case.  So  when,  Depue  vs.  Place,  7  Barr,  429,  the  question 
related  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  authentication  of  the  test  papers 
rather  than  to  the  application  of  them. 

In  Power  vs.  Frick,  2  Grant's  Cases,  307,  there  was  no  test  paper  in 
question.     The  ruling  related  entirely  to  the  knowledge  of  a  party's 


198  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

handwriting  which  a  witness  must  possess  to  enable  him  to  prove  a 
lost  note. 

So  in  Fulton  vs.  Hood,  10  Casey,  366,  there  was  no  test  writing,  and 
therefore,  strictly  speaking,  no  comparison  of  hands.  The  question 
was  upon  the  alteration  of  the  date  of  the  bond  in  suit.  McKinney, 
the  subscribing  witness,  was  the  scrivener  who  prepared  the  bond, 
and  he  swore  that  the  alteration  in  the  date  and  the  addition  of  the 
concluding  words  were  made  before  the  bond  was  executed.  After 
the  defendant  had  given  evidence  to  contradict  him,  the  plaintiif  was 
permitted  to  prove  by  experts,  in  corroboration  of  the  sub.scribing 
witness,  that  the  whole  bond,  including  the  additional  date,  appeared 
to  be  written  by  the  same  hand,  with  the  same  pen  and  ink,  and  at 
the  same  time.  We  sustained  this  ruling.  There  are  not  wanting 
cases  in  the  books  to  show  that  experts  may  be  called  to  testify 
■whether  a  particular  handwriting  is  natural  and  genuine  or  forged 
and  imitated.  See  Sharswood's  Starkie,  p.  152,  in  notes.  And  such 
cases  sustain  our  ruling  in  Fulton  vs.  Hood  ;  but  it  is  only  necessary 
to  recur  to  the  distinctions  which  I  stated  at  the  outset  of  this 
opinion,  to  see  that  this  case  bears  no  relation  to  the  cases  on  evidence 
by  comparison  of  hands. 

Taking  Bank  vs.  Whitehill,  10  S.  &  K.,  Lodge  vs.  Pipher,  Id.,  and 
Baker  vs.  Haines,  6  Wh.,  as  the  leading  cases  in  Pennsylvania  on  this 
branch  of  law,  the  following  summary  may  be  stated  as  fairly  result- 
ing from  them. 

1st.  That  evidence  touching  the  genuineness  of  a  paper  in  suit  may 
be  corroborated  by  a  comparison,  to  be  made  by  the  jury,  between 
that  paper  and  other  well-authenticated  writings  of  the  same  party. 

2d.  But  mere  experts  are  not  admissible  to  make  the  comparison, 
and  to  testify  to  their  conclusions  from  it.  * 

3d.  That  witnesses  having  knowledge  of  the  party's  handwriting 
are  competent  to  testify  as  to  the  paper  in  suit;  but  they,  no  more 
than  experts,  are  to  make  comparison  of  hands,  for  that  were  to  with- 
draw from  the  jury  a  duty  whicb  belongs  appropriately  to  them. 

4th.  That  test  documents  to  be  compared  should  be  established  by 
the  most  satisfactory  evidence  before  being  admitted  to  the  jury. 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  199 

5th.  That  experts  may  be  examined  to  {jrove  forged  or  simulated 
writings,  and  to  give  the  conclusions  of  skill  in  such  cases  as  have 
heen  mentioned,  and  their  like. 

Our  cases  are  all  reconcilable  with  these  conclusions,  though  the 
language  of  judges  has  not  always  been  as  guarded  as  would  have 
been  well.  No  doubt  inconsistent  authorities  may  be  found  outside 
our  borders,  but  it  is  not  worth  our  while  to  discuss  them,  for  if  we 
have  got  a  settled  rule  of  our  own  it  is  enough  for  us  to  adhere  to  it, 
etc. 


This  decision  prevents  the  expert  from  placing  the 
genuine  and  disputed  signatures  in  juxtaposition,  and 
drawing  the  attention  of  the  jury  to  their  resemblances 
or  differences,  although  the  learned  judge  very  truly 
saj's  in  the  first  sentence  of  his  opinion  that  a  com- 
parison of  one  kind  or  another,  whether  it  be  with  an 
actually  visible  pattern  or  with  an  ideal  stamped  upon 
the  memory,  is  necessary  to  the  formation  of  any  judg- 
ment. 

Conforming  to  the  Law. — With  the  purpose  of  con- 
forming strictly  to  the  law,  which  makes  the  jury  and 
not  the  expert  compare  the  genuine  and  suspected  sig- 
natures, the  writer  has  devised  the  plan  of  prei)aring 
a  table  in  which  each  horizontal  line  is  devoted  to  the 
description  of  a  particular  signature,  while  each  of  the 
vertical  columns  into  which  the  paper  is  ruled  is  dedi- 
cated to  one  element  of  the  signatures.  The  expert 
thereupon  reads  separate  descriptions  of  signatures 
and  their  averages  by  reading  in  succession  the  hori- 
zontal lines,  while  the  jury,  by  reading  the  columns 


200  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

vertically  downward,  observ^es  at  once  the  differences 
between  the  separate  signatures  and  their  averages. 

This  method,  as  well  as  the  application  of  composite 
photography,  to  effect  the  same  purpose,  are  briefly  ex- 
plained in  Chapters  XIIL  and  XIV. 

Both  these  methods  enable  the  expert  to  prepare  the 
work  for  the  jury's  consideration,  and  to  leave  it  to  the 
judgment  of  the  members  of  that  body  without  ob- 
truding an  opinion  at  all, — unless  counsel  should  hap- 
pen to  ask  for  it. 

Best  Method  of  Presentation. — It  is  really  not  in- 
frequently practicable  to  explain  to  a  jury  of  intelli- 
gence the  methods  by  which  tabular  or  graphic  results 
have  been  reached,  and  to  leave  entirely  in  its  hands 
the  decision  as  to  w^hat  these  results  show ;  and  when 
this  is  done  the  jury's  decision  must  carry  greater 
weight  than  when  it  may  be  asserted  that  they  have 
been  influenced  by  the  words  or  manner  of  the  expert 
witness. 

But  it  is  unjust  to  be  obliged  to  evade  the  letter  of 
a  bad  precedent,  having  the  effect  of  a  bad  law,  in  the 
attempt  to  further  the  interests  of  that  very  justice  in 
behalf  of  which  the  decision  itself  was  undoubtedly 
made  ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  present  law  will 
soon  be  relegated  to  the  limbo  of  all  those  laws  and 
decisions  which  have  hampered  progress  and  stood  in 
the  way  of  eliciting  truth.  It  may  be  said  that  if  one 
who  is  an  expert  be  forbidden  to  juxtapose  and  make 
comparison  before  a  jury  of  a  handwriting  admitted 


AND    DETECTION    OF    FORGERY.  201 

to  be  genuine  with  one  in  doubt,  it  is  in  consonance 
with  the  spirit  of  such  a  law  that  he  should  be  forbid- 
den to  use  such  comparison  in  forming  an  opinion.  It 
is  certain  that  without  a  comparison  he  can  form  no 
opinion,  and  the  statement  that  in  his  belief  the 
writing  in  question  is  or  is  not  a  forgery  implies  that 
he  must  have  made  such  a  comparison;  it  can  have  no 
other  basis.  Of  course  it  is  immaterial  whether  the 
genuine  and  the  questioned  writings  be  placed  side  by 
side,  whether  the  expert  carry  in  his  mind  the 
peculiarities  of  the  one  when  he  views  the  other,  or 
whether  he  produce  tables  of  the  two  writings.  In 
either  case  this  judgment  can  only  be  the  result  of 
comparison  and  the  detection  of  differences. 

Either  the  decision  of  genuineness  must  be  left  to 
the  fortuitous  impressions  of  those  who  have  not  given 
scientific  study  to  the  subject,  or  those  who  have  made 
handwriting  a  serious  study  must  be  allowed  the  use 
of  the  tool  with  which  they  do  their  work,  and  that 
tool  is  comparison,  no  matter  how  the  task  be  under- 
taken. 

One  of  the  palpable  anomalies  of  the  present 
practice  is  that  a  person  who  has  seen  another  write, 
no  matter  how  ignorant  the  observer  may  be,  is  com- 
petent to  testify  as  to  whether  or  not  certain  writing  is 
by  the  hand  of  the  person  he  has  once  seen  engaged 
in  the  act  of  writing,  while  an  expert  in  handwriting 
may  only  testify  that  the  hand  appears  to  be  sinmlated, 
but  may  not  point  out  the  differences  between  speci- 


202  STUDY    OF    HANDWRITING 

mens  of  genuine  writing  and  the  instrument  in  con- 
troversy. 

It  is  safe  to  presume  that  the  apparently  unreason- 
able position  of  the  law  was  assumed  with  a  good 
object  in  view,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  object 
was  the  protection  of  the  court  from  the  swarm  of 
soi-disants  experts  which  might  be  hatched  by  a  laxity 
in  the  wording  of  the  law.  Few  things  would  be 
easier  for  a  dishonest  person  than  to  swear  he  was 
a  competent  expert,  and  then  to  swear  that  a  document 
was,  in  his  opinion,  forged  or  genuine,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  his  hirer.  The  framers  of  the 
practice  in  reference  to  expert  testimony  on  documents 
seem  to  have  had  in  mind  that  the  only  possible  kind 
of  testimony  as  to  documents  was  that  based  upon 
impressions ;  and  that  the  only  method  of  coming  to 
a  conclusion  was  by  giving  words  to  the  first  mental 
effect  produced  on  a  witness  after  he  has  looked  at  a 
writing. 

For  this  reason  the  practice  has  grown  up  in  many 
trials  of  preparing  carefully-forged  signatures  and  pro- 
ducing them  before  the  witness  as  a  test  of  how  far  he 
is  able  to  distinguish  genuine  from  forged  signatures. 

However  expert  a  witness  may  be,  however  success- 
ful in  discriminations  of  this  kind,  self-respect  and  a 
becoming  modesty  should  induce  him  to  refuse  to  an- 
swer them  without  distinctly  stating  that  his  answer, 
which  gives  his  best  judgment  at  the  time,  must  be 
subject  to  reversal  if  by  longer  and  more  thorough 


AND    DETECTION   OF   FORGERY.  203 

investigation  it  appear  that  the  opposite  view  were 
the  true  one. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  present  practice  in  Pennsylvania 
would  have  been  inaugurated  had  there  prevailed  a 
system  of  exact  measurement,  and  a  method  of  care- 
fully explaining  all  the  steps  which  led  to  an  expert's 
conclusions,  and  it  will  probably  cease  as  soon  as  the 
courts  are  convinced  that  the  principles  involved  in 
the  examination  of  handwriting  are  as  purely  scien- 
tific as  those  employed  in  the  researches  of  ethnolog}* 
or  philology. 

Some  of  the  extraordinary  consequences  resulting 
from  the  decisions  of  other  courts  than  those  of 
Pennsylvania,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
present  law  in  this  State,  will  suggest  the  inquiry 
whether  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  bring  them 
more  into  conformity  with  the  spirit  of  the  age.  As 
long  as  there  were  no  other  means  of  establishing 
the  genuineness  or  falsity  of  handwriting  but  by  the 
vague  impressions  or  guesses  of  persons  more  or  less 
"  accustomed  to  handwriting,"  the  restrictions  of  the 
law  in  Pennsylvania  may  have  been  useful  in  reducing 
the  number  of  sham  experts  by  narrowing  the  field  in 
which  their  testimony  was  competent ;  but  there  can 
be  no  excuse  for  such  curtailment  if  the  study  be  ad- 
mitted to  stand  on  the  same  basis  as  other  studies 
which  involve  the  application  of  scientific  principles 
to  specific  and  useful  purposes. 

If  it  l)e  true,  as  Chief-Justice  Woodward  said,  that 


204  STUDY   OF    HANDWRITING 

comparison  of  some  sort  must  form  the  basis  of  all 
opinion  as  to  genuineness,  why  should  the  expert  be 
prevented  from  directly  comparing  a  suspected  signa- 
ture with  a  genuine,  or,  still  better,  with  the  iyjpe  of  a 
number  of  genuine  signatures,  instead  of  with  a  men- 
tal image;  and  pointing  out  to  the  jury  wherein  the 
differences  between  the  two  are  unimportant,  and 
wherein  they  are  essential.  The  very  act  of  doing  this 
intelligently  would  offer  the  best  guarantee  of  the 
witness's  title  to  be  called  an  expert. 


AND   DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  205 


BOOKS    CONSULTED   IN   THE    PREPAKATION    OF   THIS 
MANUAL. 

The  Handwriting  of  Junius  Professionally  Investigated, 
by  Mr.  Charles  Chabot  (expert),  with  a  preface  and  col- 
lateral evidence,  by  the  Hon.  Edward  Twisleton.  yVoD? 
6pii  xaL  vdibq  axobcv  raXXa  xuxpa  /.ai  zo<p).a.  London  :  John 
Murray,  Albemarle  Street,  1871. 

The  Philosophy  of  Handwriting,  by  Don  Felix  de  Sala- 
manca, with  135  autographs.  London:  Chatto  &  AVin- 
dus.     (Dedication,  October,  1879.) 

"  According  to  Cocker."  The  progress  of  penmanship 
from  the  earliest  times,  with  upward  of  twenty  illustrative 
examples  from  Penna  Volans,  and  other  works  on  the 
subject.  By  W.  Anderson  Smith.  London :  Alexander 
Gardner  and  Paislej',  12  Paternoster  Row,  1887. 

A  Text-Book  of  Paper-Making.  By  C.  T.  Cross  and  E. 
J.  Bevan.  E.  &  F.  N.  Spon,  125  Strand,  London,  and  35 
Murray  Street,  New  York,  1888. 

Die  Fabrikation  der  Siegel-  und  Flasehenlacke,  etc.,  etc. 
Louis  Edgar  Andes,  Wien,  Pesth,  Leipzig.  A.  Hartlebens, 
Verlag,  1885. 

A  Book  of  EecoUections.  B}-  John  ConU'  Jeaffreson, 
author  of  "  A  Book  about  Lawyers,"  "  A  Book  about 
Doctors,"  "  A  Book  about  the  Clergy,"  etc.,  in  two  volumes. 
London  :  Hurst  &  Blackett,  limited,  13  Great  Marlborough 
Street,  London,  1894. 


206  STUDY   OF   HANDWEITING 

Die  Bisengallustinten.  Grundlagen  zu  ihrer  Beurtheil- 
ung.  Im  Auftrage  der  Firma  Aug.  Leonhardi  zu  Dresden, 
chemische  Fabriken  fur  Tinten,  bearbe^et  von  deren 
Cliemikern  Osw.  Schluttig  iind  Dr.  G.  L.  Neumann. 
Mit  2  Holzsehnitten,  einer  schwarzen  und  zwei  fai'bigen 
Tafeln.     Dresden :  V.  Zahn  und  Jaensch,  1890. 

A  Manual  of  Handwriting.  How  to  give  collective  les- 
sons in  handwriting;  including  an  adaptation  of  the  Ger- 
man method  of  time  writing  to  the  English  characters. 
By  F.  Betteridge,  head  master  of  the  Feversham  Street 
Higher  Board  School,  Bradford.  London  ;  Griffith,  Far- 
ran,  Okeden  &  Welsh,  West  corner  of  St.  Paul's  church- 
yard, 1887. 

Pharmaceutische  Central-Halle.  Neue  Folge,  No.  13, 
p.  225,  1892. 

Journal  of  the  Societ}^  of  Chemical  Industry,  Oct.  31, 
1892. 

Finger-Prints.  Bj^  Francis  Galton,  F.E.S.,  etc.  Lon- 
don :  Macmillan  &  Co.,  and  New  York,  1892. 

Decipherment  of  Blurred  Finger-Prints.  By  Francis 
Galton,  F.E.S.,  etc.  London :  Macmillan  &  Co.,  and  New 
York,  1893. 

lUustrirtes  Lexikon  der  Yerfalschungen  und  Yerun- 
reinigungen  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  der  Kolonial- 
waaren  und  Manufakte,   der  Droguen,  Chemikalien,  und 


AXD    DETECTION   OF    FORGERY.  207 

Farbwaaren,  Gewerblichen  und  Landwirtschaftlicben 
Produkte,  Dokumente  und  Wertzeichen  mit  Beriicksicht- 
igung  des  Gesetzes  von  14  Mai,  1879,  betr.  den  Ycrkehr 
mit  Nabrungsmitteln,  Genussmitteln  und  Gebraucbsge- 
genstanden  sowie  aller  Verordnungen  und  Vereinbarungen. 
Unter  Mitwirkung  von  Fachgelebrten  und  SachverstJindi- 
gen.  Herausgegeben  von  Dr.  Otto  Dammer  mit  5  Farben- 
drucktafeln  und  734  in  den  Text  gedruckten  Abbil- 
dungen.  Leipzig :  Verlagsbucbhandlung,  von  J.  J.  Weber, 
1887. 

Artikel  Handscbrifien.  Sittl,  ScbriftverstJindiger  in 
Miinchen. 

Artikel  Papier.  Prof.  Iloj-er  an  der  technischen  Hoch- 
scbule,  in  Miinchen. 

Artikel  Tinte.     Dr.  Prior,  Chemiker,  Niirnberg. 

Hagers  Untersuchungen.  Ein  Handbuch  der  Unter- 
suchung,  Priifung,  und  Wertbestimmung  aller  Handels- 
waaren,  Natur-  und  Kunsterzeugnisse,  Gifte,  Lebensmittel, 
Geheimmittel,  etc.  Zweite  umgearbeitete  Auflage.  Heraus- 
gegeben von  Dr.  A.  Hager  u.  Dr.  E.  Holdcrmann.  (Zwei- 
terBand.)  Mit  Zablreichen  Holzschnitten.  Leipzig :  Ernst 
Giintbus  Verlag,  1888. 

A.  Chevallier.  Dictionnaire  des  Alterations  et  Falsifi- 
cations des  Substances  alimentaires,  medicamenteuses  et 
commerciales.  Avec  Vindication  des  mo^'ens  de  les  recon- 
naitre.  Par  Er.  Baudriniont,  Docleur  es  sciences,  Professeur 
d  I'Ecole  Superieure  de  Paris ;  Directeur  de  hi  Pharinacio 
Centrale  des  Hopitaux  Civils ;  Membre  de  1' Academie  do 
Medecine.     Sixieme  edition.     Pevuc,  corrigoe  et  considc- 


208  STUDY   OF   HANDWRITING. 

rablement  augmentee  avec  310  figures  intercalees  dans  le 
texte  et  4  planches  en  chromolithographie.  Paris :  Asse- 
lin  et  Cie.,  Libraires  de  la  Faculte  de  Medecine,  Place  de 
I'Ecole  de  Medecine,  1882. 

A  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evidence,  by  Sir  James  Fitz- 
james  Stephen,  K.C.S.I.  A  Judge  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice,  Queen's  Bench  Division.  Fourth  English  edition. 
American  Edition  with  annotations  and  references  to 
American  cases,  by  George  Chase,  LL.B.,  Professor  of 
Criminal  Law,  Torts,  and  Procedure  in  the  Law  School 
of  Columbia  College.  IS'ew  York :  Printed  for  the  editor, 
1890. 

Industrial  Organic  Chemistry.  By  Samuel  P.  Sadtler, 
Ph.D.  Adapted  for  the  use  of  manufacturers,  chemists, 
and  all  interested  in  the  utilization  of  organic  materials  in 
the  Industrial  Arts.  Philadelphia:  J.  B.  Lippincott  Com- 
pany, 1891. 


NDEX. 


A  case  of  forgery  detected,  79. 
A  case  of  supposed  fraud  settled,  81. 
Abrupt  changes  in  guided  hands,  143. 
Absence  of  shading,  some  pens,  75. 
Absorption  of  light  bj'  ink  lines,  49. 
"  Accustomed  to  handwriting,"  203. 
Acetic  acid,  159. 
Acidified  dichloride,  167. 
Acids,  alkalis,  washing  with,  43. 
Additions  and  interlineations,  80. 
Advantage  of  angles  as  tests,  115. 

of  iodine  test,  182. 
Agalite  in  paper  making,  67. 
Age,  approximate,  of  writing,  170. 
Ages,  relative,  crossed  ink  lines,  169. 
Aid  to  judge  diflerences  of  shade,  46. 
Alcohol,  absolute,  158;  test  by,  178; 

uses  of,  168  ;  wetting  with,  44. 
Alizarine  ink,  159. 
Alkalis,  acids,  washing  with,  43. 
Alterations,  character  of   document, 

75  ;  of  letters  or  figures,  76. 
Alum,  159. 

Aluminum  resinate,  68. 
American  express  sealing  wax,  86. 

Geologist,  125. 

Indian's  skin  ])rint,  88. 

law  on  handwriting  exjjcrts,  189. 

Philosophical  Society,  131. 
Ammonia,  aqua,  158;  a.s  test  of  age, 
170;  gas  test,  172. 

removes  logwood  ink,  169. 

sodium  hyposulphite,  167. 
Ammonium  hydrate  test,  lii2. 

sulphide,  1  7(i. 
Amplifying  letters,  25. 
Analysis,  quantitative,  154. 


Ancient  writing,  testimony  on,  188. 
And£s,  Lodis  Edgar,  86. 
Angles,  115;  with  horizontal,  25. 
Aniline  colors  of  Hoft'man,  33. 

inks,  160. 

metallic  lustre,  94. 

pinks  in  paper  making,  68. 
Anomalies  of  present  law,  201. 
Apparatus  of  II.  Wingate,  56. 
Apparent  crossing  of  lines,  91. 
Appearances  of  seal  on  the  wax,  86. 
Approximate  age  of  writing,  170. 
Archbishop  llildcbert,  of  Tours,  71. 
Architecture,  ancient,  26. 
Arm  of  position,  in  writing,  20. 
ASQUITH,  committee  appointed  by,  88, 
Astrology  and  astronomy,  9. 
August  Leonhardi,  Dresden,  32. 
Average,    graphic,     110 ;    numerical, 

119. 
Avoiding  infringement  of  law,  114. 


Bar,  cast-iron,  16. 

Bas^e  line,  25. 

Baudriinont's  method  of  testing,  177. 

Beating  the  pulp,  07. 

Bertillon's  system,  88. 

Best  method  of  presentation,  200. 

BETTKitinGE,  on  Handwriting,  21. 

Bibliotics,  7. 

Blackened  pajier-tracing,  39. 

Blacker  ink  appears  the  upper,  48. 

Bleaching  of  upper  ink  line,  169. 

Blot,    14;    and    thickened    lines,  3.3  ; 

before  or  after  erasure,  80. 
Blotting-paper,    176;  saturated  with 

reagents,  170. 
14  209 


210 


INDEX. 


Blue  vitriol,  159. 

Bluing  writing  paper,  172. 

Blur,  in  composite,    141 ;    bordering 

tracings,  4.3. 
Bona  fide  and  illegal  alterations,  75. 
Books  consulted,  205-208. 
Brewster,  Hon.  F.  Carroll,  139. 
Bringing  out  sympathetic  ink,  175. 
Broadening  lines  shows  true  color,  46, 
Bull's-eye  illuminator,  99. 
Burnt  ivory,  176. 


^^.,  difficulty  of  measuring  from,  114. 

Calcium  sulphate,  6S. 
Calendering  papers,  68. 
Calligraphy  experts,  22. 
Camera  lucida,  use  of,  98. 

obscura,  104. 
Care  of  document,  34. 
Carre's  determination  of  age,  174. 
Cast-iron  bar,  16. 
Cause  of  Pennsylvania  law,  203. 
Caution  necessary  with  alcohol,  169. 
Cellulose,  yellowish  color  of,  68. 
Chabot,  Charles,  9,  10. 
Change  of  color  in  characters,  157. 
Changes  by  lack  of  space,  34. 

occurring  in  the  inkstand,  95. 
Character,  individual,  19. 

in  union  of  letters,  131. 

of  guided  hands,  143  ;  of  ink,  76. 

reading,  by  handwriting,  24. 
Characteristics  of  inks,  88. 

of  untrained  hands,  27. 
Characters,  finger-marks  on,  35. 
Charcoal  powder,  176. 
Chemical  agents  on  inks,  41, 

examination,  154. 

reagents,  washing  with,  42. 

testing,  plea  for,  155. 

washing  reagents,  171. 
Chemung  stage,  120. 
Chevallier  and  Lassaigne,  44,  71, 

169,  173,  181. 


Chief-Justice  Woodward,  15. 

Chinese,  identification  of,  88. 

Chlorinated  lime,  158,  168. 

Choice  of  magnifier,  45. 

Citric  acid,  166. 

Citric  or  tartaric  acid  test,  157. 

Clarke,  J.  M.,  method  of,  125. 

Classification  of  good  inks,  90. 

Clay  in  paper  loading,  67. 

Close  agreement  in  composite,  142. 

of  guided  hands,  147. 
Cobalt  salts  in  sympathetic  inks,  175. 
Coincidences  of  impulse,  143. 
Color  and  shade,  33. 

lustre,  and  thickness  of  film,  46. 
of  inks,  93 ;  of  paper  important, 

42  ;  of  wax  darkens,  86. 
reactions  tests  for  inks,  156. 
scale,  97. 

theories   of    Brewster,    Young, 
Helmholtz,  Maxwell,  104. 
Colored  prisms,  46,  100,  101, 102. 
Colorimetric  measurement,  103. 
Comparison  of  handwriting,  188;   in 
forming  opinion,  201. 
of  real  with  imitated  tremors,  64. 
Compensation  by  fingers,  129. 
Competency  by  seeing  another  write, 

201. 
Composite  photography.   111;  better 
than  measurements,  134. 
averages  conform  to  law,  199. 
Clarke's    use    in   paleontology, 

125  ;  of  phrases,  126. 
photographs,  119,  120. 
type  face  by,  121 ;  typ^signature, 

123  ;  essence  of  things,  125. 
shows  acts  in  writing,  135. 
variations  in,  25. 
Composites  aid  to  jury,  142  :  to  ex- 
perts, 143;   G Alton's  method, 
130. 
measurements  of,  141 ;    of  com- 
posites, 130;  of   single  names 
and  letters,  131. 


INDEX. 


211 


Concealment  of  spots,  TO. 
Conforming  to  the  law,  199. 
Consciousness,  double,  8. 
Constitution  of  inks,  159. 
Contraction  of  habits,  24. 
Convenient  form  of  apparatus,  158. 
Convexity,  apparent,  of  line,  74. 
Copper  vitriol,  170. 
Copperas,  159. 
Copying  and  glossy  inks,  47. 

inks,  159. 
Cotton  fibre,  67. 

CouLiER  on  restoring  writing,  4.3. 
Court  expert,  11,  12. 

of  law,  lo. 
Craniology  and  phrenology,  9. 
Crossed  strips  of  colored  glass,  51. 
Crossing  ink  lines  darkest  spot,  49. 
Cupric  chloride,  159. 
Curvature  of  letters,  24. 
Curve  in  line  of  writing,  20. 

"Dandy  roll"  in  paper-making,  70. 
Dash,  14;  or  stroke,  writing  over,  77. 
Decipherment  of  finger-prints,  87. 
Decision  as  to  genuineness,  201. 
Definition  of  experts,  Stephen,  185. 
Description  of  forged  signatures,  163. 

of  parchment-making,  71. 

of  Washingtox's  signatures,  137. 
Determination  of  age  by  Carre,  174. 

of  a  case,  1 1 9. 
Deviations  from  genuine  tracings,  26. 

in  long  letters,  63. 

observable  in  long  lines,  65. 
Dextrine  for  invisible  inks,  176. 
Diagram  of  direct  and  oblique  vision, 
53. 

of  glass  prisms,  101. 

of  oblique  vision  experiment,  51. 
Dichroism  of  inks,  94. 
DicKKiisoN,  William  R.,  139. 
Dickson,  Sami-el,  138. 
Differences  in  constitution  of  inks  by 
physical  tests,  96. 


Differences  of  fraudulent   from   bona 
fide  alterations,  75. 

of  pressure  and  breadth  of  line, 
73. 
Difficulty  of  deciding   one  specimen 
simulated,  139. 

of  forging  bad  hand,  28. 
Digits  alterable  into  one  another,  77. 
Dilute    hydrochloric    acid  tests  age, 

174. 
Direct  comparison  before  a  jury,  114. 
Dishonest  experts,  202. 
Distilled  water,  158. 
Distinction,   writing    and    signature, 

127. 
Distortion,  14. 

Disturbed  fibres  entangle  pen,  79. 
Document,  alteration  character  of,  75. 

care  of,  handling  and  soiling,  34. 

moistened  with  alcohol,  173. 

not  to  be  folded,  36. 
Dots  cannot  exactly  coincide,  136. 
Double  consciousness,  8. 
Dragged  appearance  of  tape,  141. 
Drawing,  aid  to  bibliotics,  112. 
Dresden,  Leonhardi's  firm  of,  32. 

(O.,  difliculty  in  measuring  from.  113. 

Each  hand  recognized  in  guiding,  148. 
East  Indians,  identification,  88. 
Eilges  of  sealing-wax  rounded,  86. 
Effect  of  gum   in  inks,  98;  jdiysical 

defect  in  writing,  128. 
Effects  of  light,  tests  by,  96. 
Enlarging  scope  of  document,  77. 
Enos  V.  Garrktt,  forgery,  62. 
Erasures  by  transmitted  light,  38. 

how  they  affect  ])apcr,  41. 

remove  sizing,  68. 
Esj)arto  fibre,  67. 
Evaporation  of  inks,  96. 
Evidence  admissible,  19(1. 

on  writing  in  Pcnna.,  190. 

Stephkn's  law  of,  185. 


212 


INDEX. 


Evidences  of  tampering,  41. 
Evolution  of  ideal  pattern,  26. 

of  signature,  26. 
Examination,  physical,  19. 
Example  of  difference  of  type,  124. 

of  guided  hand,  145. 
Exj)erience  in  selecting  elements.  111. 
Experiment  in  guided  hands,  152. 

writing  over  erasure,  79. 
Expert  forgers  fail  in  angles,  115. 

may  testify  hand  simulated,  201  ; 

and  as  to  other  matters,  190. 
opinions  of,  185,  186. 
penman  simulating  illiterate,  28. 
should  compare  hands,  204. 
should  not  be  made  to  guess,  202. 
should  regard  meaning,  82. 
tested  by  prepared  forgeries,  202. 
testimony,  11,-    witness,  11,  13, 
16,  108;  on  microscope,  45. 
Explaining   methods    to    jury,    200; 
guided  hands,  144,  147. 
Plate   VII.,  149 ;    crossed   glass 
strips,  51 ;  knots  in  slow  wri- 
writing,  66;  Plate  II.,  54,  55. 
Exposure  to  light  of  good  ink,  90. 
Extraneous  matter,  35. 
Eye,  unaided  selection  by,  39. 


/^variations  in,  63. 


Fabrikation  der  Siegellacke,  86. 

Falsification,  17. 

Family  likeness  by  composite,  121. 

Feathers,  158. 

Feebleness,  tremor  of,  59. 

Fibres  of  paper,  42;  as  a  filter,  92. 

entangle  pen,  79. 
Fifteen  inks  in  common  use,  32. 

p.  c.  difference  suspicious,  116. 
Fifty  diameters  magnification,  65. 
Filter,  fibres  act  as,  92. 
Finger-marks  on  papers,  35. 
Finger-prints  and  palmistrj-,  9. 
Fingers,  compensation  by,  129. 


First  scrutiny,  37. 
Flame,  sodium,  104. 
Flour  paste,  183. 

Flourish  line,  17;  writing  over,  78. 
Fluid,  writing,  32. 
Foreign  law  courts,  156. 
Forgers'  pitfalls,  141. 
Forgery,  in  what  it  consists,  41. 
Formal  parts  of  letter,  126. 
Francis,  Sir  Philip,  9. 
Fraud,  simulated  tremor,  61. 
Free  handwriting,  66. 
French  signature,  27. 
Furrows  of  quill  pen-nibs,  30. 
of  pen-nibs,  73. 

Gallic  acid,  44. 

Gallo-tannic  acid,  159,  173,  176,  ISO. 

iron  salt,  32. 
Galton,  Francis,  87,  110,  120,  125, 

129,  131. 
Garrett,    Enos    V.,    composite   and 

forgery,  62,  142. 
Gelatin  as  sizing,  68. 
Geometrical  symmetry,  26. 
Georgina  paper,  179. 
Giles,  Miss,  9. 

Glare  hinders  photograph,  55. 
Glass  rods,  158;  strips  colored,  51. 
Glossy  copying  inks,  47. 
Glue  for  invisible  ink,  176. 
Glutinous  matter,  183. 
Glycerin,  159. 
Gmelin,  7. 

Goat  and  wolf  skin,  71. 
Gold  terchloride,  157,  167. 
Goose-quill,  29. 
Grammapheny,  8. 
Graphic  average,  110. 
Greater  legibility  of  forgeries,  83. 
weight  of  jury's  verdict,  200, 
Guide-lines,  writing  without,  115. 
Guided  hands,  143. 
Gum  arable,  159. 
Gum  in  inks,  47,  91,  160. 


INDEX. 


213 


Habits,  contraction  of,  24. 
HAGEit,  46,  159,  171. 
Hamilton  stage,  ]2(i. 
Handling  and  soiling,  34. 
Handwriting    varies,    129  ;      E.\])ert 
SiTTL,  38;  experts,  13. 
expert  laws  regarding,  185,  189; 

evidence  in  Penna.,  190. 
manual  of,  20 ;  opinion  relevant, 
186;  i)bilosophy  of,  24. 
Hard  finish  to  paper,  6,  67. 
Hawley,  Geo.  W.,  62,  142. 
Heating    document,    44,    173  ;    with 

reagents,  173. 
Heavy  letters,  causes  of,  129. 
Helmholtz  on  color,  104. 
Heuschel,  Sir  William,  87. 
Hesitation  and  tremor,  58,  59,  61,  62. 
Hesitation  in  writing,  25  ;  imjiortant, 

66. 
HiLDEBERT,  Archbishop,  71. 
HoFMANN,  anilines,  33. 
HOFMANN,  J.,  183. 
Hollow  cone  pens,  31. 
Horizontal,  angle  with,  25. 
Hot  flat-iron,  44. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  157;  test,  162;  of 

age,  170. 
Hydrogen  sulphide  water,  176. 
Hyj)otbesis,  17. 

Idciil  ])attcrn  evolved,  26. 
Identification  of  illiterate  hand,  60. 
If  comparison  not  allowed,  200. 
Illiteracy,  tremor  of,  60. 
Illiterate  witness  competent,  99. 
Illustration  of  additions,  78  ;  flourish 

line,  17;  jjosition,  21,  22. 
Imitation  of  olil  ink,  95. 
lm])ortance  of  ])hotograph,  155. 
Inadmissible  testimony,  187. 
India  rubber  for  invisible  ink,  176. 
Indigo  carmine,  159. 
Individual  character,  19. 
In  erasures,  j)en  entangled,  79. 


Influence  of  guided  hands,  145. 

"  In  full  to  date,"  77. 

Infusion  of  nutgalls,  44. 

Injustice  of  Pennsylvania  law,  200. 
of  requiring  sight  opinions,  202. 

Inks,  color,  93,  98,  99;  changes,  IdO, 
101  ;  destroj'ing  paper,  47  ;  seen 
through  sheet,  80  ;  transparent,  48  ; 
kinds,  32 ;  with  metal  dust,  96 ; 
with  metallic  lustre,  96;  iri- 
descence, 97;  scale  for,  97;  oxida- 
tion and  evapor.ation,  97 ;  change 
of  state,' 98;  logwood,  aniline,  33; 
with  gum,  47  ;  nutgall,  149  ;  ani- 
line, 160;  under  microscope,  91; 
solid  matter  in,  91  ;  on  glass  and 
paper,  92;  aniline  metallic  lustre, 
94;  good  qualities  of,  89,  90  ;  clas- 
sification, 90;  sympathetic,  175; 
volatile  parts,  155. 

Insertion  of  pages,  69. 

Instrument,  the  writing,  29. 

Insufficiency  of  qualitative,  106. 

Interlineations,  80. 

Involuntary  hesitation  of  forger,  78. 

Iodine,  158;  crystals,  qualities,  168. 
paper,  174, 181. 

Iridescence  of  aniline  ink,  97. 

Iridosmine  tips,  31. 

Iron,  cast-,  bar,  16  ;  gallo-tannate,  32. 

Issue  question  at  Table  I.,  119. 

Ives,  Fhedeuick  E.,  104. 

Journal  Society  of  Chem.  Ind.,  I  S3. 

Judge,  ])residing,  1.'). 

.Judgment  of  color  and  shade,  33. 

of  art,  37.  * 

Junian  discussion,  10. 
Junius  letters,  S,  it. 
Jury  making  comparison,  200, 
JisTR'i:,  Chief-,  Wodhwaud,  15. 
Justification  of  guideil  hands,  144. 

Kaolin  in  paper  loacling.  ('>7. 
Kinds  of  tape,  S5. 


214 


INDEX. 


4 


deviations  in,  63. 


Lack  of  space  affects  writing,  34. 
Lassaigne,  44,  71,  169,  173,  181. 
Law,  American,  as  to  testimony,  185. 
Leaving  comparison  to  jury,  200. 
Legal  sense  "  science  and  art,"  186. 
Leonhardi  ink-factory,  32,  89. 
Leptodesma  type,  125. 
Letterpress  copies,  190. 
Letters,  curvature  in  line,  24. 

not  joined  in  words,  27. 

shading,  25;  slant  in,  24. 
Lifting  pen  from  paper,  23. 
Light  and  air  on  inks,  90. 

effects  as  tests,  96. 

monochromatic,  104. 

strokes,  128. 

transmitted,  38. 
Lighter  ink  seems  the  lower,  48. 
Lime-water,  176;  pit,  71. 
Limpid  inks,  32. 
Line,  base,  25 ;  color  of,  46  :  organic, 

122 ;  thickens,  33. 
Linen  fibre,  67. 
Litmus  paper,  172,  179. 
Loading  in  paper-making,  67. 
Logwood  ink,  159. 
Lustre  hinders  photograph,   55. 

dulled,  95. 

metallic,  of  aniline  ink,  94. 

Machine-made  papers,  182. 

Mackinnon  pen,  30,  74. 

Magnifier,  choice  of,  45. 

Magnifying  power,  46. 

Manipulation,  98;  of  colored  prisms, 
102;  test  papers,  179. 
with  iodine  vapor,  181. 

Manner    of    writing,   19;    AVashing- 
ton's,  135. 

Manual  of  handwriting,  20. 

Mary  Reynolds,  8. 

Material  of  substance  bearing  writ- 
ing, 66. 


Maximum  and  minimum,  125. 
Maxwell's  theory  of  color,  104. 
Measurements,  letters  and  spaces.  41  ; 
colored  prisms,  102;   ealorimetric, 
103;    of  composite,  141;  choice  of, 
111. 
Metallic  particles  in  inks,  96. 

rolls  in  calendering,  68. 
Methods  of  making  composites,  129  ; 
recommended,  133. 
Hager's,  for  testing  inks,  171; 

AVingate's,  58. 
qualitative,    106;     quantitative, 

106. 
selection  of,  39 ;    of  tabulation, 
200;  Baudrimont's,  177. 
Microscope,   objective,   45 ;    observa- 
tion by,  30  :  study  of  ink.  88. 
Minute  drops  of  reagents,  156. 
Mishandling  pen,  27. 
Misspelling  names,  23. 
Mitchell,  Dr.  S.  Weir,  S. 
Moistening  with  water,  177,  178. 
Monochromatic  light,  104,  105. 
Morris,  Thomas  J.,  composite,  142. 
Most  difficult  writing  to  read,  27. 
Motive,  77. 

Names  omitted  in  tables,  118. 
Natural  tremor  in  free  hand,  66. 
Nervous  hands  most  erratic,  65. 
Netherclift,  Fredk.  George,  9. 
Neumann  and  Schluttig,  32,  88. 
Nibs  of  metal  pens,  29. 

of  quill  pens,  30. 
Nitric  acid,  157;  uses  of,  166. 
None  but  experts  should  use  reagents, 

156. 
Not  advisable  measurements,  141. 
Numerical  average,  109,  119,  134,  189. 
Nutgalls,  90,  159,  180. 

^_,  difficulty  in  measuring  from,  113. 
Objectives,  45,  57. 


INDEX. 


215 


Objects  in  testing  inks,  154. 
Oblique  excamination,  2S  ;    illumina- 
tion, 99,  176;   vision,  ol. 
Obvious  mistakes  of  forgers,  83. 
Old  inks  have  yellowish  tinge,  9.'). 
Opaque  objects  covering  erasures,  41. 
Opinion,  expert,  185,  201  ;  of  witness 
of  writing,  190. 

ChIKF-Ji-STICE    WOODWAIID,    191, 
199;  based  on  impressions,  2ll2. 
Organic  nature  of  human  designs,  122. 
Oxalic  acid,  151,  161,  169,  170. 

Pages,  insertion  of,  69. 

Pale  inks,  32. 

Palimpsests,  73. 

Palmistry  and  finger-prints,  9. 

Paper  destroyed  by  some  inks,  47. 

fibre  as  a  filter,  92. 

ruling  of,  69  j    ruling  for  meas- 
urement, 113;   for  documents, 
174 
Parabolic  reflector,  99. 
Parchment,  67,  71 ;  manufacture,  71 ; 

of  Romans,  72. 
Part  II.,  chemical  examination,  154. 
Parts  written  unconsciously,  24. 
Paste  with  resin  soap,  41. 
Pattern  ideal,  evolution,  26. 
Paying-teller,  Ki. 
Pearl  hardening,  68. 
Peculiarities  of  signatures,  112. 
Peignot,  71. 

Pen-marks  on  documents,  38. 
Pennsylvania  law,  15. 
Penny  Cyclopanlia,  71. 
Pens,  15S;  past  and  present,  29. 
Penumbra  around  spots,  4:i. 
Persons  qualified  to  testify,  186. 
Pharmaceutisclic  Central- llallc,  183. 
I'hiladelphiii,  9. 

Philosophy  of  handwriting,  24. 
riiosphorus,  16. 

Photograph  to  bo   previously   taken, 
37. 


Photographing  document,  155. 

on  celluloid,  129. 
Photography,    composite,     111,     119, 

120,  121,  123,  125,  126. 
Photo-micrographs  of  fibres,  67. 
Phototype  of  crossed  lines,  55. 
Phrases,  composites  of,  126. 
Phrenology  and  craniology,  9. 
Physical  examination,  19. 

defects,  influence  of,  in  writing, 

128. 
difl"erences  in  marks,  96. 
Pin-pricks  on  documents,  35. 
Pitfalls  for  forgers,  141. 
Pivot  and  radius,  23  ;  in  writing,  20. 
Places  of  conformity  in  pen's  path, 
128. 
to  look  for  S3-uipathetic  writing, 

176. 
where  hesitation  important,  06. 
Plassopheny,  8. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  68. 
Plate  I.,  50;  II.,  52;  III.,  SO;  IV., 
136;  v.,  140;  VI.,  142;  VII.,  148. 
Plea  for  chemical  testing,  155. 
Position  of  arm  in  writing,  2(1. 
Possibility  of  analyzing  guided  hand, 

145. 
Postulates,  three,  109. 
Potassium  chromate,  159. 

ferrocj'anide,  157,  163,  173;  pre- 
cautions, 164  ;  instance,  165. 
fluoride,  169;  iodide,  176. 
sulpluicyanate,   158;    delicacy  of 
test,  165. 
Powdered  chalk,  72. 
Practical  components  of  inks,  91. 
Practice  in  Pennsylvania,  20;!. 
Prejudice  of  courts,  155. 
Preliminary  examination,  34,  160. 
Prejiaring  forgeries  for  experts,  202. 
Presiding  judge,  15. 
Press  copy  with  acid,  175. 
Prisms  of  colored  glass,  16. 
Probability  of  forgery,  77. 


216 


INDEX. 


Procedure,  39. 

Professors  of  h.andwriting,  14. 

Prominences,  72. 

Proper  treatment  of  document,  36. 

Public  officials  qualified  to  testify,  187. 

Pulp  beating  and  loading,  67. 

Pumice,  erasing  writing  by,  73. 

Qualitative  tests,  insufficient,  106. 
Qualities  of  good  ink,  89,  90. 
Quantitative  tests,  106,  154. 
Question  at  issue  on  Table  I.,  119. 
Quill,  goose,  29  ;  pen-nibs,  30  ;  trim- 
ming, 30. 

Radius  between  pivot  and  pen,  21. 

and  jiivot,  23. 
Raising  a  cheque,  77. 
Reading  character  by  writing,  24. 
Reagents,  used  only  by  experts,  37. 

desirable,  171. 

used  by  forgers,  171. 
Reappearance  of  writing,  73. 
Reflected  light,  46. 
Reflector,  parabolic,  99. 
Refolding  paper,  35. 
Reformation  of  bad  writing,  76. 
Relation        between      position      and 

writing,  129. 
Relative  ages  of  crossed  ink  lines,  169. 
Remains  of  tracings,  39. 
Remelting  sealing-wax,  86. 
Removal  of  characters,  41. 
Resin,  effect  on  surfaces,  43. 

soap,  41. 
Restoration  of  original  marks,  43. 
Restricted  use  of  high  powers,  46. 
Retouching,  63. 
Reynolds,  Mary,  8. 
R.  Whitaker,  140. 
Robert    Whitaker,   138,   139;  com- 
posite, 140  ;  tape  and  seal,  141. 
Roberts,  A.,  183. 
Rough  handling  of  documents,  35. 
Rounding  of  wax  edges,  86,  87. 


Rubbing  and  scratching  paper,  41. 
Ruling  of   paper,    69 ;    for  measure- 
ments, 113. 
Running  of  ink,  42. 

Sal  ammoniac,  spirit  of,  172. 
Saline  solutions,  washing  with,  43. 
Sandarach  on  rubbed  surface,  42. 
Saturating  blotting-paper,  170. 
Scanning    document,    40 ;    by   trans- 
mitted light,  38. 
ScHLUTTiG  and  Neumann,  32,  88. 
"Science  and  art,"  185. 
Scratched  paper  detected  by  touch,  42. 
Scratching  or  rubbing  paper,  41. 
Script,  elements  of,  9. 
Seal  of  Whitaker  will,  141. 
Sealing-wax,  86. 
Seals,  wafers  on  erasures,  41. 
Seeing  one  once  write  qu.alifies,  186. 

writing  done  to  qualifj',  187. 
Selection,  method  of  procedure,  39. 
Separate  lines  of  character,  60. 
Sequence  in  crossed  lines,  48. 
Shade  and  color,  33 ;  judging  of,  46. 
Shading  letters,  25. 
Shallow  single-furrow  stylus  pens,  31. 
Sham  experts,  restriction  of,  203. 
Side  illumination  changes  color,  100. 
Signature,  the  French,  27. 

difference  from  writing,  127. 

made  in  court  inadmissible,  190. 

repetition  with  variation,  123. 

type  never  quite  realized,  123. 

typical  elements,  107. 

AVashington's,  134;    manner  of 
writing,  135. 
Silver-nitrate  test,  180. 
Simulated  tremor,  61. 
Simulation  by  trained  hands,  28. 
Single  letter  composites,  131. 
SiTTL  expert  handwriting,  38,  39. 

old  inks,  95;  on  parchment,  72. 
Sixteenth  century  paper,  72. 
Sizing  of  papers,  41,  68. 


INDEX. 


217 


Sizing  on  writing-paper,  172. 
Skeleton  arm  illustrationsi,  20. 
Skin  deprived  of  hair  or  wool,  71. 

marks  on  wa.\,  87. 
Slant  of  letters,  24. 
Sleeve  on  diaphragm,  45. 
Slight  differences  of  shade,  46. 
Slope,  24. 

Slower  movement  induces  tremors,  65. 
Soap,  aluminum  resinate,  68. 
Sodium  flame,  104. 

hydrate,  luS. 

nitrate,  167. 
Soft  pens,  29. 
Solid  particles  in  inks,  91. 
Sorting  signatures,  130. 
Space,  spaces,  23,  34. 
Spirit  of  sal  ammoniac,  172. 
Spots,  concealment  of,  71. 
Spuriousness,  40. 
Staining  of  straggling  fibres,  50. 
Stephen's  Law  of  Evidence,  185. 
Stroke  or  dash,  writing  over,  77. 
Structure  of  tapes,  84. 
Stylograph,  30. 
Subphrase  in  two  lines,  127. 
Substance  written  upon,  67. 
Substitute  for  sizing,  69. 
Successive  images  on  plate,  130. 
Sugar,  159. 

Suggested  improvements,  108. 
Sulphuric  and  sulphurous  acid,  157; 
used,  166. 

acid    with     potassium     fluoride, 
169. 
Summary  of  experiments,  152. 
Superposed  lines,  63. 
Superposing  celluloid  prints,  130. 
Superposition  in  crossed  lines,  169. 

judged    by   perpendicular  sight, 
94. 
Surface  roughened,  171. 
Surveying  and  plotting  useful,  112. 
Symbolism  in  writing,  2f). 
Sympathetic  inks,  175. 


Table  I.,  angular  measurements,  117. 

II.,  guided  hand,  146. 

III.,  guided  hand,  150. 

IV.,  condensed  from  III.,  151. 

v.,  reaction,  183,  184. 
Tabulating  results,  118. 
Tampering,  evidences  of,  41. 

with  tapes,  86. 
Tape,  illustrations,  80. 

kinds  of,  S5. 

on  Whitaker  will,  84,  140, 

structure,  84. 
Tartaric  acid  j)roperties,  157,  166. 
"  Taste"  silk,  85. 
Taylor,  Isaac,  composite,  142  ;  Plate 

"VI.,  142;  forged  signatures,  62. 
Taylor,  W.  Curtis,  com|)osites,  131. 
Teachers  of  writing,  13. 
Teased-up  fibres,  69. 
Tenfold  magnifier,  161. 
Test-papers,   litmus,    Georgina,    etc., 

179. 
Testimony  as  to  ancient  writings,  188. 
Testing  inks,  152. 

nature  of  surface,  178. 
Tests  which  change  writing,  157. 
Text-book  of  paper-making,  67. 
"The  Human  Faculty,"  120. 
Thickness  of  ink  film,  46. 
Three  postulates,  109. 
TiLGHMAN,  Richard,  9. 
Tin  dichloride,  157;  uses,  167. 
Too  great  legibility  suspicious,  76. 
Topograjihical  plotting,  112. 
Tours,  IIiLDKiiERT,  bishop  of,  71. 
Tracings   of    signature,    25;     super- 
jiosed,  26. 

remains  of,  39. 
Transmitted  ligiit,  99;  scanning  by, 
38. 

sunlight,  177. 
Transparency  of  ink  lines,  4S. 
TiiAVIs  t'».  liuow.N,  190  ;  opinion,  I'.U. 
Tremor  in  tracings  of  pen,  30. 

natural,  66;  simulated,  63. 


218 


INDEX. 


Tremor  of  fraud,  139;  simulated,  61. 

of  slow  tracing,  65. 
Trimming  quill  pens,  30. 
Truscott,  Charles,  composites,  132, 

133. 
Twenty  impulses  in  long  letter,  66. 
TwisLEToN,  Hon.  Edw.,  9,  10. 
Two  classes  of  inks,  32. 

parts  of  ink,  91. 
Type  face  by  composite,  121. 

signatures  by  composite,  123. 
Typical  signature,  107. 

Ultramarine  in  paper-making,  68. 
Unaided  eye,  39. 
Uniformity  of  fibre,  85. 
United  States  inks,  32. 
Unreasonable  law,  202. 
Untrained  hand,  27. 
Upper  line  widened,  49. 
Use  of  averages  obtained,  116. 

of  magnifj'ing  instrument,  45. 
Usual  angles  of  writing,  llfi. 

Value  of  angles  for  handwriting,  153. 

Vapor  of  iodine,  181. 

Variations  important  in  study,  125. 

in  composite,  25. 

in  movement  of  arm,  129. 

in  numerical  table,  141. 
Vellum,  71. 
Vinegar,  wood,  159. 
Violet  blue  from  iodine,  183. 
Volatile  constituents,  155. 

Wafers,  etc.,  over  erasures,  41. 

Warme's  treatment,  44. 

Washing  with  reagents,  42,  171. 

Washington's  signatures,  131 ;  illus- 
tration, 134 ;  manner  of  writing, 
135;  dots  and  flourishes,  136;  his- 
tory of,  137. 

Water,  distilled,  158. 


AVater  and  alcohol,  179. 
Water-mark,  38,  70. 
Wax,  sealing,  86. 

skin-marks  on,  87. 
Wetting  document  with  alcohol,  44. 
When   opinion  on  handwriting  rele- 
vant, 186. 
Whitaker  will,  history  of,  138. 
White  blotting-paper,  158. 
"  Whorls"  of  skin-prints,  88. 
AVhy  magnifying  aids  color  determi- 
nation, 46. 
AVidening    of    upper    ink    line,   49 ; 

illustration,  Plate  I.,  50. 
AA^iNGATE  letter,  55;  apparatus,  56. 
A7itness  competent  though  illiterate, 

187. 
AVolf  and  goat  skin,  71. 
AVoo(J-pulp  fibre,  67. 
AA^)od  vinegar,  159. 
AA'oonwARD,  Judge,  15,  114,  190. 
AA^ords  of  letters  not  joined,  27. 
"  AVove''  paper,  70. 
AA'riter,  identifying  one's  self  with,  38. 
Writing  affected  by  subject,  40. 

diS"erence  between,  and  signature, 
127. 

fluid,  32. 

genuine  and  suspected,  must  not 
be  juxtaposed,  199:  must  be 
black  when  made,  91. 

instrument,  29. 

manner  of,  19. 

most  difficult  to  read,  27. 

of  stylus  pens,  31. 

over  an  erasure,  79. 

over  flourish  line,  78. 

over  stroke  or  dash,  77. 

without  guide-lines,  115. 

without  restoring  sizing,  69. 

Yellowish  color  of  cellulose,  68. 
"Young,  theory  of  color,  104. 


THE    END. 


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